Having explored the Germanic Sky Father and Earth Mother in my previous posts, I wish to take the next logical step in exploring the Celtic mythology, focusing first on the Sky Father.
Unlike the Germanic mythology, there is no single Celtic Sky Father, but the role is shared among a cluster of deities, such as Taranis, Lugh, The Dagda, and Belenos. I will start by examining each of these deities in turn, exploring those characteristics which retain the Sky Father function.
Proto-Celtic Thunder God
*Toranos ('He of the thunder') is the hypothesised Proto-Celtic thunder god, from which we derive the Gaulish Toranis, the Old Irish Torann, and the Welsh Taran. It is likely that thunder and lightning, war, protection, fertility, and oath-keeping were all aspects of His function.
Taranis
Of all the aforementioned gods, it is He who has the closest resemblance to being a literal Sky Father. Like the Proto-Germanic *Þunraz, He is a thunder deity and His name is linked to the Proto-Celtic *toranos, 'thunder', which derives from the PIE *(s)tenh₂, 'to thunder'. *toranos is directly cognate with the Latin 'tonare' , 'to thunder'. Cognates in Celtic languages include the Old Irish torann, Middle Welsh taran and the Old Breton taran.
Taranis was equated by the Romans with Iupiter (Jupiter) in early mediaeval commentaries on Lucan's work, Pharsalia. Epigraphic evidence also shows this direct equation, primary examples being a first century CE dedication found in Dalmatia to Iovi Tanaro (Iupiter Taranis) and the Roman altar from Chester, dated to 154 CE which also refers to Iovi Tanaro. The iconography associated with Taranis are the lightning bolt and the wheel, the latter being disputed by some scholars. There are of course, inscriptions of Taranis and also images of a god with a wheel, but never the two together. While the wheel is associated by the Romans with the thunder god, we must not assume that this applies to Taranis or that images of the bearded wheel god relate to Him. Some images of Iupiter do contain a wheel and it also appears with images of unnamed Celtic gods, so it is not a symbol specific to a particular deity.
Proto-Celtic God of Sovereignty and Many Skills
*Lugus: from this polymath deity we derive the Gaulish Lugus/Lugoves, the Irish Lugh and the Welsh Lleu.
Lugh
Pronounced as 'loo', this is the Irish reflex of the Proto-Celtic *Lugus, pronounced as 'lugus'. The Welsh equivalent is Lleu, pronounced as 'hleh-ee' and is also derived from the Proto-Celtic *Lugus. *Lugus may be derived from either the PIE *leuk, meaning 'light, brightness' > 'the shining one' or *leugh, meaning 'to bind, swear an oath' > 'the oath god/binding god'. Which one of these PIE etymologies has the strongest claim? The answer to that question depends on whether you are a linguist or a mythologist. Linguists prefer the second option, *leugh because it fits the sound laws perfectly, it explains the Proto-Celtic *Lugus much better than the first option and it aligns with the sovereignty and oath-bindings of Lugh. Mythologists prefer the first option, *leuk because it fits the image of Lugh being a radiant, shining, solar deity.
The Gaulish reflex of *Lugus is also Lugus. He is not known from any iconography, only attested to in Roman inscriptions and in interpretatio Romana, where He is equated with the Roman Mercury, not Iupiter. Indirectly this equates Him with the Norse Odin. He is the god of skills, crafts, trade, travel, eloquence, trickery, magic, oaths, and contracts. Some of these aspects are also shared with Odin. The Irish Lugh shares many of the aforementioned attributes as evidenced in the Lebor Gabála Érenn ('The Book of the Taking of Ireland') where He is referred to as the 'master of all skills', those skills being smithing, warring, harp-playing, poetry, a knowledge of history, sorcery, healing, being a wright, and a champion.
In the Cath Maige Tuired ('The Battle of Mag Tuired') Lugh becomes both a king on a temporary basis and also a king-maker. This is clear evidence of His sovereign function. Lugh's primary weapon is the Sleá Lugh (the 'Spear of Lugh'), crafted by the smith god, Goibniu. The spear, as I have discussed in the first post in this series, is a weapon of Indo-European sovereignty, wielded first by *Tiwaz and then Odin. When awakened, Lugh's spear bursts into flames, roars like thunder and shines with a supernatural brightness; this is clearly a reflex of the Indo-European solar motif.
In the surviving Welsh mythology as contained in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi and other Welsh mediaeval sources, Lleu, the Brythonic reflex of *Lugus, is depicted as a ritual-legal hero and an oath-bound sovereign. In the recorded myths, it is clear that Lleu embodies oath-magic, dynamic kingship and sky ascent (notably as an eagle, a solar figure).
Nuada (The Old Sacred King)
The sovereignty function is shared between the older god, Nuada, who represents the Old Sacred King, concerned with ritual kingship, the law, and purity. This is in contrast to Lugh, who represents The Young Victorious King, concerned with skill, charism, and battle-prowess. Split kingship is a pattern in Indo-European mythology, and we can see exactly the same thing in the division between the old Germanic Sky Father *Tiwaz and Odin. However, this shared position by Lugh and Nuada does not appear in Gaul, where Lugus maintains both parts of the role. Thus, in our schema, Lugh = Odin, Tyr = Nuada. This has already been recognised by scholars, and it is something which I will return to in a separate essay in the future. While scholars split the Sky Father function into two in the Germanic mythology with ease, I have stumbled upon this four way division among the Irish Celts. As of yet, I do not know if this has already been identified by scholars.
In the Welsh mythology, Nudd is the equivalent of the Irish Nuada. He is associated with sovereignty, healing, brightness, and the Otherworld. Lleu Llaw Gyffes is the Welsh counterpart to Lugh. He too is multi-skilled, a heroic king, solar and associated with magic.
Nuada and Nudd derive from the same ancient Proto-Celtic root, *snowdo‑ / *snoudo- , 'mist, cloud, haze, brightness through mist', giving the meaning, 'He of the misty brightness' and 'The clouded one/the mist lord'. There is an alternative reconstruction, *Nowdos, meaning: 'The Possessor/The Acquirer/The Lord of Power'. Both Nuada and Nudd lead back to a hypothesised Proto-Celtic deity: *Nowdonos/*Snowdonos. Interestingly, the English name for Yr Wyddfa, Mount Snowdon, shares the same Proto-Celtic root and the same conceptional idea. I would like to elaborate further on this, but it will have to wait for a future post.
The Proto-Celtic All-Father
From the Proto-Celtic *Dagodagos, we derive the Irish The Dagda, which is the only linguistic reflex of the Proto-Celtic name, but there are other deities who share the same functions of The Dagda, such as the Gaulish Sucellus, the Welsh Brân the Blessed, Beli Mawr, Arawn, the Celticised Silvanus and Dispater. It should be stressed at this point that *Dagodagos is strictly speaking a title, not a personal name.
*Dagodagos ('the Great Good God') is the All-Father, the Cosmic Provider, a functional (but not linguistic) reflex of the PIE Sky Father, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr.
The Dagda
The Dagda corresponds to the Proto-Germanic *Tiwaz (greatly diminished to the NorseTýr and the Anglo-Saxon Tiw, the Vedic Dyaus Pitar, the Roman Iupiter and the Greek Zeus Pitar. The Dagda is the centre of the Irish pantheon, sharing aspects of the Sky Father function with Lugus and Torann. He is the chief of the gods, the protector of the tribe, the guarantor of abundance, the master of life, death and fertility, and the ruler of times and seasons.
The symbols of The Dagda include:
. The Club of Life and Death (Lorg Mór, 'great club').
. The Cauldron of Plenty (Coire Anseasc).
. The Harp Uiathne ('The Four-Angled Music').
. The Great Staff (sometimes distinct from the club).
. A large cloak (symbolising the land) and other agricultural symbols such as a bag of seed and a plough.
. The oak tree.
. A wheel (symbolising His solar aspects).
His club is a most interesting weapon, constructed of iron, too heavy for even eight men to lift and so large that it required wheels to transport it. The dragging of the club created deep ditches in the earth that subsequently formed the mythic boundary ditches of Ireland. It was a most lethal weapon; one end of the club, the 'Death End' could kill nine men with a single blow, while the 'Life End' could restore the dead to life. The deadly aspect of this weapon brings to mind the continental Germanic Thunder God's club (Donarkeule, 'Donar's Club') which was mentioned in Saxo Grammaticus's gesta Danorum ('History of the Danes') as being made of iron, and also the Norse Thor's Hammer, likewise made of iron with deadly and life-giving qualities.
The Proto-Celtic Solar God
*Belenos/*Belinos is the Proto-Celtic solar god, his name meaning 'the Bright One, 'the Shining One', or 'the Radiant God'. The Proto-Celtic root of His name being *belo-/*belo-s-, meaning 'bright', 'shining', 'brilliant' , 'strong light'. This Proto-Celtic root derives from the PIE * bʰel‑ ('to shine', 'flash', 'burn', 'to be bright'). Thus *Belenos/*Belinos is linguistically related to the Slavic god, Belobog ('White/bright god'). His qualifications for the role of Sky Father are thus obvious purely from a linguistic point of view. He has the following attributes:
. Brightness.
. Daylight.
. Celestial radiance.
. Purity and moral order.
. Sovereignty.
Reflexes of *Belenos/*Belinos
. Belenos, the Gaulish and Pan-Celtic god, associated with cosmic order, sovereignty, solar radiance, healing, purification , seasonal renewal (Beltaine), and protection of cities. He was equated by the Romans with the Greek Apollo. 'The Gauls worship Belenus as Apollo'. (Tertullian, ad nationes, 197 CE). Archaeological evidence from Northern Italy, the Alps, and Pannonia in the form of inscriptions such as 'Beleno Apollini', and 'Apollini Beleno' again support this association.
. Belisama, a Gaulish goddess, associated with fire, light, craftsmanship, poetry, learning, sacred skills, intelligence, rivers and healing. She was equated by the Romans with the goddess, Minerva. Her name derives from the Proto-Celtic *Belisamā, meaning 'The Most Radiant Goddess'. It is more than likely that Belisama and the Gaulish Belenos were a divine pair with their origins reaching back to the Bronze Age. Linguistically and functionally they complement each other. She, like Belenos was also worshipped outside of Gaul.
. Beltaine, derived from the Proto-Celtic *belo‑tene ('bright fire'). This festival was, and still is celebrated halfway between the Autumn Equinox and the Summer Solstice, the 1st of May being the customary date. This marks the start of summer in the Celtic calendar.
The symbols associated with Belenos include the following:
. The solar disc. This primary symbol represents radiance, light, purity, and healing. It is often depected behind the head of a deity as a halo.
. The solar horse and chariot. This is imagery which is associated with Belenos through the Romans' equation of Him with Apollo.
. Fire, which is central to His cult.
. Healing plants and sacred springs. Again, this mirrors Apollo's role as a healing god.
. City walls and gateways. This is an expression of His role as a guardian.
. The wheel, which symbolises cosmic order, represents the movement of the sun and connects Him to His role as a sovereign god. This symbol was in common use during the Bronze Age onwards.
. The rooster, which in Romano-Celtic contexts is associated with solar deities, for it heralds the dawn and the overcoming of the darkness with light.
Beli Mawr
A Welsh reflex of *Belenos, the father of Arianrhod, Lludd Llaw Ereint, Llefelys, Afallach, Gwydion, Gwyn al Nudd, Govannon, Amaethon and many Welsh kings and heroes, and the husband of Dôn, the Welsh mother-goddess. His name translates as 'Beli the Great'. He is a pregenitor in many royal Welsh pedigrees, in the same way that Woden is for the Anglo-Saxons.
Bile
An Irish reflex of *Belenos, the Irish father of gods and kings, a divine progenitor in the same sense as Beli Mawr. He is also the father of Míl Espáine, the ancestor of the Gaels. He is associated with ancestry, sacred trees and Otherworld power. The literal meaning of His name is 'sacred tree, great tree, world-tree'. Bile is not described in the Irish narrative myths because He belongs to the mythical pre-history of Ireland, a very ancient deity.
Belatucadros
A deity worshipped in Cumberland, Westmorland and southern Scotland by both native Britons and Roman soldiers. There are approximately 28 altar inscriptions making reference to this deity along Hadrian's Wall. The etymology of His name must be considered in two parts: Belatu-, 'bright one', 'shining one' , and -cadros, 'slayer', 'warrior'.
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