A Timeline for the Christianisation of the Anglo-Saxons

During the period of the Christianisation of the previously heathen Germanic peoples the Church initially used deception as a tool to win over the hearts and minds of the people as they lacked the power at that stage to use violence and force. Only after the introduction of Christianity in certain regions with the assistance of chieftains and petty kings did they resort to more overt methods to establish and enforce the Christian religion.

The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons started relatively early, only a century and a half after the 'coming of the English' in 449 CE, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. I realise of course that there was a Germanic presence in England centuries before this date but for convenience I am referring to this date. Pope Gregory I made the decision to send missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons and the mission began in 597 with the arrival of a mission under the leadership of a Benedictine monk, Augustine to Canterbury in the kingdom of Kent. Kent was colonised by Jutes from northern Germany and southern Denmark. The king at that time, Aethelbert (c. 550-616) was the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings and held the title of Bretwalda ('ruler of Britain'). That does not of course signify that Aethelbert literally was the 'ruler of Britain', just that he was a powerful king with influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It should be understood that 'Britain' was a term that the Romans used for what became England and Wales. 'Great Britain' refers to the entire island including Scotland.

It was a shrewd decision of Gregory to target the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings as conversion was a process from the top down in the hierarchy of society. It is said that Aethelbert converted to Christianity very quickly and one must question how deeply held his convictions were? I believe that the answer lies with Aethelbert's wife Bertha, the daughter of the Christian Merovingian king of Paris, Charibert I (c. 517-567). On travelling to Kent to marry Aethelbert Bertha took with her Bishop Liudhard, her private chaplain so it is clear where the influence and motivation to convert was coming from. Whilst it does not appear that Aethelbert forced his subjects to convert it would appear that they were to enjoy the king's favour if they did.

The Christianisation process in Kent saw a reversal after Aethelbert's and Bertha's deaths. His son Eadbald, a pagan succeeded him. However even Eadbald would ultimately also convert to Christianity. One other king Saeberht of Essex converted under the influence of Eadbald's father, Aethelbert. It is quite obvious that these sudden 'conversions' amongst the most powerful people in England had nothing other than money and power as the motives. It is not my intention to give a detailed chronology for the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons but merely to point out how this process began-under the influence of kings and initially peacefully but that was not to last for very long.

Bede tells us in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People that Eadbald's son, Eorcenbehrt (died 664) was the first Anglo-Saxon king to command that the 'pagan idols' be destroyed and the feast of Lent to be enforced. It did not take long, not even half a century for the former peaceful methods of conversion started to take a violent turn!

Kent was not immune from the Christian virus for other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms started to convert at about the same time in the early 7th century. King Raedwald of East Anglia converted in the year 604. It would appear that this too was under the influence of Aethelbert! However Raedwald's 'conversion' does not appear to have been very sincere as his temple contained both an altar dedicated to Christ and one to the old Gods. Under the prompting of King Edwin of Northumbria, Raedwald's son, Eorpwald converted to Christianity along with his entire kingdom. Edwin was baptised in 627 and is widely regarded as one of the most committed Christian kings amongst his contemporaries. However under what or whose influence did Edwin convert? Once again as in the case of Aethelbert Edwin was married to a Merovingian princess, Aethelburh of Kent, the sister of Eadbald who by this time was also a Christian! I have written in the past about Edwin's high priest Coifi who was also instrumental in persuading Edwin to convert and it was he who desecrated the temple of Woden in Goodmanham in 627. See: The Temple of Woden at Goodmanham

These conversions as I have intimated earlier did encounter the odd pagan backlash and setback. The Christian king Eorpwald was slain in 627 by Ricberht who it is believed was his brother and may have ruled East Anglia afterwards.

In the same 7th century Peada, the son of the pagan Penda and the king of Mercia also embraced Christianity and there is no record of any relapse in that kingdom. In the kingdom of Sussex Aethelwealh was baptised in 675 and it is speculated that this was a precondition of marrying the Christian Queen Eafa of the Hwicce. (This seems to be a recurring theme!) Hwicce was a tribal kingdom under the influence of the much larger and more powerful Mercia. The Christianisation of the kingdom of Wessex began with the baptism of King Cynegils in 635. Likewise Cwichelm of Wessex who was the king of the Gewisse was also baptised in the same year. It is of this royal house that the Christian zealot Alfred the 'Great' sprang.

One of the later kingdoms to be converted was that of the Jutes of the Isle of Wight who unlike the others were converted by force after the invasion of King Wulfhere of Mercia in 661. Once the king left the islanders returned to paganism but 25 years later in 686 King Caedwalla of Wessex also invaded but this time exterminated the population (in true 'Christian' fashion) and annexed the island to the kingdom of Wessex.

Heil, Lost God of the Anglo-Saxons

Some time ago whilst perusing my copy of Charles Isaac Elton`s Origins of English History (1890) I noticed a reference to an obscure Anglo-Saxon deity. Whilst discussing the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity he writes:

"The history of the conversion is full of incidents which illustrate the character of the English paganism. We are told of Ethelbert`s care to meet the missionaries under the open sky, for fear of the magical influence which they might gain by crossing his threshold; of the king bowing before his idol in a road-side shrine near Canterbury, and taking part with his nobles in the offering of the sacrifices, and of Augistine in his journey to the West breaking to pieces the image of a god which was adored by the villagers. The local traditions preserve the remembrance of the Woden-Hill within sight of the missionaries` landing-place, and of a temple on the site where Westminster Abbey stands, once `a place of dread` on the march-land where several kingdoms joined, but dedicated to the wealthy `King of London`, at the request of his protector Ethelbert."

 The footnote to this text states:

"Bede, Hist. Eccl. i. 25; Thorn`s Chronicle, Dec. Script. 1760. `Cerne Abbey was built by Austin, the English apostle, when he had dash`d to pieces the idol of the pagan Saxons called Heil, and had delivered them from their superstitious ignorance.` Camden, Brit. 56; Will. Malmesb. Gesta Pontificum, 142."

I cannot however find any reference to the incident of the destruction of the idol of Heil in the relevant section of Bede`s Ecclesiastical History of the English People. However  Paul Newman states in his Lost Gods of Albion that the French hagiographer Gotselin (1058-1098) was the first person to record the visit of St. Augustine to Cerne and using an earlier source describes how the worshippers of Helia taunted and drove out St Augustine and his band of followers.

Newman goes on to recount how Augistine came to `Cernel`, the old name for Cerne and he was jeered at and repulsed by the local community. He also refers to the Life of St Augistine in which the author tells us that Augustine destroyed the idol Heil, or Hegle. Walter of Coventry, a 13th century chronicler also recites a version of the story in which he refers to the idol as Helith. The well of  Augustine still stands at Cerne Abbas. Could it be that Heil, Hegle or Helith is the Anglo-Saxon name for Cerne? According to the 1789 edition of William Camden`s Britannia and William Stukely the chalk hill figure was called `Helis`.

Whether this figure has its origins with the Anglo-Saxons no one can determine but it is absolutely clear that our ancestors did venerate this figure and equated it with Heil. This often happens when new peoples take over an ancient sacred site. They honour it but name it after their own god or gods. One interesting aspect of the Cerne giant is that he wields a club in his right hand and some have speculated that he represents Hercules and thus has a Roman origin. However we need to bear in mind that Thunor also wielded a club as an alternative to the axe or hammer and thus it could just as easily be related to Him. The etymology though is against this idea and it is more likely that this area was sacred to the God referred to as Heil. The name would imply possibly a deity of healing. This name, particularly in the form Helith is in fact suggestive of a Goddess rather than a male deity. It is interesting that the well I referred to is reckoned to have healing properties and thus predates Augustine`s arrival there. Some have speculated that Helith may be related to Frau Hoelle or the Norse Hel but more research is surely needed about this deity before we can speak with any authority about Him/Her.

A Search For an Anglo-Saxon Alternative to the Term 'Priest'

I have over recent years pondered on the terminology that we should be using for the function of priest within our heathen rites. Priest is a universally understood term but I am a little troubled over the christian connotations and wish to explore alternative and more Germanic terms. Preost is a term used by the Anglo-Saxons (See A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary by J.R. Clark Hall]). However from my studies of the term it appears to originate with the christian priesthood via presbyter. This in my opinion would make it unsuitable for us to use. 

Our research is limited by the scant amount of original Anglo-Saxon literature, especially during the pre-conversion period as pre-christian Germanic society was largely a pre-literate one. Literacy was reserved for the rune masters and priests. Therefore we must also resort to exploring the terms used by other Germanic peoples. Before we do this we need to consider if there are any other Anglo-Saxon alternatives to preost. Aeweweard could be a suitable term but its pronunciation may be too difficult for some to to accept in everyday useage. Also strictly speaking the term is defined as law-guardian (Rudolf Simek, Northern Mythology). The astute observer will note the second part of this word-weard, a term which we already use for hearth and gemoot warders. If we recall the Icelandic example the priest was also a temporal chieftain although the situation was different among the non-Scandinavian Germanic peoples where the two offices were separate. 

Heargweard is a more interesting and in my opinion relevant term for the hearg was the sanctuary or temple and thus a heargweard was the guardian of the temple. In Iceland the priests were called gothar, the singular being gothi, the female gythja. The Gothic equivalent gudja corresponds closely to the Old Norse gudija. A temple priest in Icelandic would be a hofgothi. Clearly gothi's specific meaning is god man. Hofgothi is very similar to the Anglo-Saxon heargweard with similar connotations. On balance I am in favour of the use of the term heargweard as Anglo-Saxons and Saxons this is more likely to be term which our ancestors used and differentiates us from Odinism and Asatru. We do not need to be dependent on their terminology nor do we need to use terms that are christian in origin or connotation. I have decided to post this article on all three of my blogs as I wish this to have as wide a circulation as possible to encourage reflection and debate.

The Graal Runes of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc

This article should be read in conjunction with The Four Sacred Treasures of the Tuatha De Danann . In that article I discussed in great detail the nature and origin of the four hallows of the Tuatha De Danann who are the same mysterious Hyperborean beings as the Aesir-Vanir. Miguel Serrano in his Nos, Book of the Resurrection equated the Tuatha De Danann with the Aesir. Steven L. Akins in his The Lebor Feasa Runda speculates that the Tuatha fled their island home  Tir nan`Og or the Avalon of the British legends to reside in Ireland (Eire-land of the Aryans) and that this could be an echo of the Atlantis myth. I direct any interested readers to Paul Dunbavin`s book Atlantis of the West for more information about the available scientific evidence to support the British-Irish geographical location for this lost early Aryan civilisation.

Of the four hallows, the Sword of Nuada, the Spear of Lugh, the Stone of Destiny and the Cauldron of the Dagda, only the last three have a direct connection with the Graal myth and thus with the final three Runes of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. To be more technically correct the 33 Rune Futhorc is a Northumbrian Futhorc, the earlier Anglo-Saxon one consisting of 31 Runes and the Anglo-Frisian 29 Runes. It is the 33 Rune Futhorc that we use in Woden`s Folk and there is a good reason for this. The last three Runes- Calc, Stan and Gar relate directly to the Graal mystery, a mystery which is Hyperborean in origin and its secrets now belong to the corpus of recovered lore of England`s Wodenist religion (See Spear of Woden, Saxon Rune Mysteries). 

Calc is known in Old Norse as Kalkr and means `chalice`. Calc is not to be found in the Old English Rune Poem. Is this because Calc is a late addition as suggested by Edred Thorsson in his book, Alu, An Advanced Guide To Operative Runology or is it as I suspect, that this Rune was withheld from public use by our ancient Rune Masters because of the sacred nature of its mystery, only to be revealed now during the Kali Yuga? Thorsson reveals that the chalice replaced the drinking horn as these were outlawed by the Church when used in a religious context. The whole practice of the use of the mead horn in our sacred Germanic rites was co-opted as a practice into the Church`s rite of Holy Communion. There is reason to suspect therefore that Calc was not the original name of this Rune but possibly `Horn` as Thorsson suggests. If the Rune is reversed it resembles the Elhaz/Algiz/Eolhsecg Rune which depicts horns! Calc symbolises the Celtic Cauldron of the Dagda.

Stan derives from the Proto-Germanic stainaz, `stone`. The stone symbolises eternity and permanence. Most of the surviving Runic inscriptions are to be found on standing stones mainly in Scandinavia and northern Germany. We know from Wolfram von Eschenbach (Parzival) that the Graal was originally a green stone that fell from the crown of Lucifer. On this stone there is curious writing, "heathen writing" which can only be a reference to the Runes. The Graal is therefore a Runic mystery and is the possession of both the Celtic and Germanic peoples. Indeed there is evidence to suggest its common Indo-European origins. I will disclose this evidence in a future article. As Thorsson says "the astounding fact is that there was originally absolutely nothing Christian about it......there was simply no Christ in it." Stan obviously relates to the Stone of Destiny-a very real historical artifact. 

Gar unlike the other 32 Runes does not belong to one of the four aetts but stands separate and central for it is the Spear of Woden and esoterically the gift of Ing. Gar stems from the Proto Germanic gaisaz and this is related to the Old Irish gae, both meaning `spear`. It is the symbol of regal power and was also carried by Parsifal in the tradition of the ancient Germanic priest-kings. Gar is also the Spear of Lugh, who is mythologically cognate with Woden. All three Runes-Calc, Stan and Gar are placed together in the Futhorc and this is symbolic. As Thorsson explains in his book that Runes situated next to one another in dyads continue a connecting theme or link. The whole Futhorc reveals a story to those with the wisdom to interpret it. Now of course one may ask what about the sword of Nuada? I have discussed this in my earlier article and there is more that I can say about this but as it does not form a direct link to the last three Runes I will reserve an article especially for Tir as the Graal associations are indirect but they DO exist. Clearly the Anglo-Saxon English people and the land of Albion (oldest known name of Britain, meaning `white`) have an important part to play in these dark days and our destiny is revealed through the study of these mysteries.

The Temple of Woden at Goodmanham

Many of my readers will be familiar with the account in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People of the desecration and destruction of the heathen temple in Goodmanham in the East Riding of Yorkshire, part of the ancient Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. There are some aspects of this account which I wish to reflect upon in this article. I am indebted to the author of A Pagan Place blog. His article on Goodmanham is most interesting: http://pagan-place.blogspot.com/2011/09/pagan-sites-of-europe-remembered-13.html

The original name of this ancient village is Godmunddingaham, meaning "Homestead of the family or followers of a man called Godmund." (A Dictionary of English Place-Names by A.D. Mills, 1991) The first question which springs to mind is who was Godmund and what was his position? One explanation is that Godmund is derived from the Old Norse name Gudmund, meaning 'protected by god'. However a Norse origin does not make any sense. Bede was writing in the 8th century about an event which occurred in the year 627 CE, well before any Danish colonisation. However it should be remembered that the Angles did come from the same area as the Danes. Also we must ponder whether the 'god' referred to is the name if the Christian god or the heathen English one, probably Woden? If Goodmanham was an important temple site which it appears to have been then it may very well be a reference to Woden. However we do not know for certain what the name of this village was in 627 CE, only what it was called at the time of Bede writing his account in about 731 CE. It is quite possible, maybe even probable that the name of the village was changed after the destruction of the temple.


King Edwin (c. 586-632/633 CE) was king of the sub-kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira which later became unified into the kingdom of Northumbria. It was at this very time-627 CE that Edwin converted to Christianity and was baptised. What a coincidence therefore that at this time the High Priest Coifi decides to renounce his ancestral Gods and adopt the Christian religion. His real motive had nothing to do with a true spiritual revelation but was solely due to his realisation that a heathen High Priest would not fare well under a Christian king. So we see here the treason not only of Edwin, the secular ruler but Coifi, the religious reader. Like all conversions of the Germanic peoples they were from the top down, not genuine and subsequently enforced by violence. One can only speculate but it is highly probably that Coifi entered the Christian priesthood after his renunciation of the true Gods. Bede seeks to imply that Edwin's counsellors, his Witan of which Coifi was a member persuaded him to adopt the Christian religion but it is clear to me from the opening sentence that Edwin already had this as his intention and Coifi knowing 'which way the wind was blowing' took advantage of this. Bede being a Christian propagandist obviously has put his own 'spin' on the account which after 100 years became distorted anyway! Even Bede's own words make it clear what Coifi's motivation was-material gain!

It is more than likely that the church in Goodmanham, All Hallows was built upon the site of the heathen temple but contrary to what some allege it was not built from the materials of the temple. As most of my readers will be aware the Anglo-Saxons did not build temples of stone. All their structures were built of wood. The only part of the temple which would have been of stone is the altar. To the best of my knowledge no archaeological excavations have been conducted in the precincts of the church.

Bede makes it clear that Coifi was a High Priest and this implies that there was an organised priesthood. Some commentators claim that the Germanic peoples did not have an organised priesthood but this thinking is based on the faulty claims of Caesar in his De Bello Gallico:

"
The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have neither Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other deities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest time, receive the greatest commendation among their people; they think that by this the growth is promoted, by this the physical powers are increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe promiscuously in the rivers and [only] use skins or small cloaks of deer's hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked. " (Book 6, Chapter 21, translated by W.A. DeMcvitte and W.S. Bohn)

 We know that this was not the case as Tacitus writing in the following century makes reference to a Germanic priesthood. Both animal and human sacrifices were carried out by the Germans. It may be that Caesar intended to say that the priesthood of the Germans was not as structured as that of the Druids of Gaul but a priesthood it never the less was.

It is generally considered that the temple at Goodmanham was devoted to Woden but this is mere guesswork as Bede does not mention Woden or the name of any other Germanic God in the quoted passage above and generally Germanic temples were devoted to more than one deity. It is significant though that Coifi cast a spear into the temple in order to desecrate it. Weapons were forbidden in the sacred gatherings of the Teutons and Coifi through his actions makes this clear just as the priesthood was forbidden to bear arms and I note, to ride a stallion although permitted to ride a mare. By riding a stallion and bearing arms he soiled his office and by casting the spear into the temple he committed an act of blasphemy. The spear is of course the sacred weapon of Woden and the horse one of his totemic beasts so by riding a stallion and by using this type of weapon to commit his act of sacrilege it is assumed by some that this temple was devoted to Woden which may of course have been the case but we cannot be sure.

Another thing that we can glean from Bede's words is that the temple contained sacred images or 'idols' to use Bede's terminology and this is something which we should therefore encourage in our own rites and to use on our own altars. The temple appeared to have more than one altar and as this was the location of the High Priest it may have had a similar status and significance as the temple at Old Uppsala in Sweden. The next time that Goodmanham is mentioned is in the Domesday Book, commissioned by William the Conqueror. A sacred well is situated near the church and is dedicated to St. Helena, the mother of the Emperor Constantine the Great. It is more than likely that this well like so many others in England was in itself once a sacred heathen shrine.