The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Fourteen, the Iranian Earth Mother

 As in the case of my previous essay, I intend to discuss the pre-Zoroastrian reflex of the Earth Mother, who is Zam, the Iranian continuation of the Proto-Indo-Iranian Earth Mother, *Dhghom‑ / *Zəm‑, derived from the PIE *Dʰéǵʰōm. She is cognate with:

. Sanskrit Pṛthivī / Kṣam

. Greek Chthōn / Gaia

. Latin Humus

. Norse Jörð

. Old Irish Domun

. Lithuanian Žemė

. Slavic Zemlja

. Hittite Tekan

She is the earth and a cosmic element, and is invoked for protection of the land, prosperity and crops. The pre‑Zoroastrian Iranian Earth Mother, Zam was honoured through elemental, agrarian, and domestic rituals rather than temple‑based worship. The evidence is indirect but consistent across Indo‑Iranian religion and early Iranian practice. She was not anthropomorphic, but the living earth itself. With the religious reforms introduced by Zoroaster, Zam simply became the physical earth, while the invented being, Spenta Armaiti became the theological earth.

Known or Securely Reconstructed Rites

Libations

Milk, ghee/butterfat, water and haoma juice were poured onto bare soil to nourish the earth. These rites are preserved in Vedic ritual and indirectly in Iranian practice.

Fire

Fire was placed on earthen mounds, in pits dug in the ground and on packed-earth hearths.

Ploughing Rites

Before ploughing or breaking the ground, rites were performed to the goddess through spoken invocations, appeasement offerings and ritual first cuts of the plough. Permission was thus sought from the Earth Mother before being cut or opened. 

Offerings of first-fruits

The earliest harvest of barley, wheat and dairy products were offered back to the earth. This practice descends from Indo-Iranian times and survives in rural Iranian customs right into the Islamic period.

Taboos

People were forbidden from burying corpses in the ground, dumping waste and spilling blood without ritual justifications. All of these activities were considered to be a pollution of the earth.

Sacred landscape veneration

As previously stated, the Earth Mother required no temples for Her worship: instead She was worshipped through the land itself. The following places were considered to be sacred to Her:

. mountains

. springs

. fertile plains

. boundary stones

. clan hearths

Household hearth rites

The hearth was considered to be the centre of Indo-Iranian religion, and the following are considered to be examples of household rites:

.  feeding the fire with butterfat

. sweeping and smoothing the hearth floor

. placing offerings at the threshold

As can be seen from the aforementioned rites, the elements played a crucial role in the worship of the Iranian Earth Mother, and in Iranian religion generally, even after the introduction of Zoroastrianism. By the use of fire, an offering was sanctified to Her and it feeds the earth with fragrant offerings. These rites honoured both fire and the earth as paired cosmic elements.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Thirteen, the Iranian Sky Father

 From the outset, I wish to make clear that I am not going to discuss Zoroastrianism in any great depth as this is not the authentic and original religion of the Iranian peoples, but a much later imposter and interloper. Instead, I am going to attempt to reconstruct the postulated Sky Father linguistically, and it certainly isn't Ahura Mazda!

The Proto-Indo-Iranian Sky Father is *Dyā́uš Pitā́r, a name inherited directly from the PIE *Dyēus Ph₂tēr, the Vedic Sanskrit reflex being Dyaus Pitar. Thanks to Zoroastrianism, the Iranian reflex was erased from history; the likely old Iranian reflex would have been *Dyāuš Pitā. I have placed an asterisk before the name to indicate that it is a reconstruction, not an historically attested term. As one can see, it is closely related to both the Vedic Sanskrit and Indo-Iranian reflexes as well as the PIE original.

The next logical question is why did the Zoroastrians erase the name and memory of their primary deity, and yet preserved the names and some of the functions of the 'lesser' ones?

Zoroaster (c.624-599 BCE) introduced a system of moral and religious dualism which did not exist in earlier Indo-Iranian religion, whose gods, like those of all the other Indo-Europeans were morally ambiguous (a reflection of mankind). Zoroaster rejected the old gods because he saw them as chaotic, violent, ritually excessive and not aligned with truth and order. Before him  deva/daiva simply meant 'god', but he demonised the word and thus demonised the old gods. The daevas thus became demons, and this caused a cultural and religious break between the Indo-Iranian peoples. While the Iranians inverted the meaning of daevas and ahura, the Indo-Aryans retained the original meanings of the terms: deva = god, asura = demon. Those old Iranian gods who were not deemed a threat to Zoroaster's reforms were retained but downgraded from their full divine status to that of a yazata, a divine being, 'one who is worthy of sacrifice/veneration', holy immortals who assist Ahura Mazda in maintaining asha (cosmic order).

Some gods which survived the Zoroastrian reforms:

Mithra He was a far too important and deeply entrenched deity for the Zoroastrians to erase or demonise. He was a guardian of contracts, oaths and light. Under Zoroaster's reforms He became a yazata, albeit a major one.

Anahita She was originally a water and fertility goddess who became Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā, the holy river and a patron of water, fertility, sovereignty and war. 

Tishtrya A rain-bringer and star god who became the divine opponent of drought (Apaosha) and the yazata of Sirius.

Vayu The ancient wind and storm god who survived as Vata-Vayu, a dual god with both benevolent and malevolent qualities in the Zoroastrian tradition.

Rashnu A deity of justice who survived and became the judge at the Chinvat Bridge and the embodiment of truth and justice.

Verethragna A warrior and victory god who became a yazata of victory. 

Haoma The Indo-Iranian sacred intoxicant god became the divine embodiment of of the haoma plant.

Major Indo-Iranian gods such as Indra, Saurva and Naonhaithya were demonised, Indra becoming the chief of the demons and named Indra daeva. Thus those old gods whom Zoroaster deemed 'good' survived as yazatas; those whom he deemed violent or ambiguous he simply demonised. We have seen the same process with Christianity demonising popular gods and renaming those who were less of a threat to it as 'saints', the vast majority never having existed as human beings. It is not only the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam who demonstrate intolerance towards their rivals, but non-Abrahamic monotheistic religions such as Zoroastrianism.

There is little more that can be said about *Dyāuš Pitā, because all that we have is the linguistic fossil of His name, but I felt it important that this series of essays did not ignore Him. When I approach the Vedic equivalent of this god, Dyaus Pitar we will gain some insight into His Iranian reflex.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Twelve, the Italic Earth Mother

 The Proto-Italic Earth Mother

The reconstructed Proto-Italic Earth Mother, *Dʰegʰōm‑mātēr  derives from the PIE *Dʰéǵʰōm / Dʰǵʰem. The Proto-Italic reflex translates as 'earth, ground, soil' (*Dʰegʰōm) 'mother' (mātēr). This compound is not directly attested and this should be kept in mind; it is a linguistic construction only. 

Features

. Primordial Earth-She is the earth itself, a cosmic foundation, not a personified and mythic goddess.

. Chthonic Power- The underworld is Her domain and so She presides over burial and the ancestors, including wealth hidden within it, whether they be minerals, seeds or roots. Serpents are part of her domain and She shares this aspect with the Greek Earth Mother, Gaia. Healing magic is also one of her functions.

. Fertility and Agricultural Cycles- She governs the fertility of the soil and seasonal renewal.

. Oath-Bearing Earth-In common with other Indo-European Earth Mothers, She is invoked in oaths as She cannot lie. This archaic function is preserved in Roman legal texts.

. Consort of the Sky Father-In union with *Djous‑pətēr (Iupiter), She maintains cosmic order and generates life.

The Italic Earth Mother does not appear under a single appellation but has many reflexes, which are:

Tellus

She is the most direct linguistic descendant of *Dʰéǵʰōm and She is paired with Iupiter in agricultural rites. A state festival, the fordicidia sacrifice was held every 15th April, on which day a pregnant cow (forda) was sacrificed to Tellus. The cow's unborn calf was removed from her womb and burned by the vestal virgins, with its ashes preserved and used for the feast of Parilia on 21st April, when they are used as a purifying mixture. The womb of the cow symbolises the womb of the Earth Mother. The ashes are the product of the purifying fire and symbolise rebirth. This marks the beginning of Spring, the  opening of the pastures and the start of the grazing season.

Terra Mater

The name literally means 'Earth Mother' and is the formalised Roman reflex of the Earth Mother. She is not a separate goddess from Tellus, but a later and more abstract version of Her. Compared to Tellus, She is universal, more of a philosophical conception, imperial and more explicitly maternal. Terra Mater retains the following aspects of Tellus:

. the womb of all life

. the source of fertility

. the granter of stability

. the receiver of the dead

During the imperial period, She was sometimes associated with the goddesses Gaia, Demeter and Cybele (the Magna Mater, 'the Great Mother'. This syncretism with local goddess cults demonstrates that the Romans saw Her as the cosmic Earth Mother archetype.

Symbols

. cornucopia, a symbol of abundance

. fruits and grain, symbols of fertility

. earthly animals

. snakes which symbolise the chthonic nature of the Earth Mother

In comparison to Tellus, who is the ritual earth, Terra Mater is the conceptual earth.

Ops

Ops is the richness stored within the earth. She represents the abundance and wealth buried within the earth. Her name can be traced to the PIE root * h₃ep‑ /*op which has the following meanings:

. abundance

. plenty

. riches

. resources

She represents the earth as the source of all goods and as a provider. She is the female Italic counterpart of:

. the Greek Plouto/Ploutos (wealth)

. the Vedic Bhūmi (giver of riches)

. Hittite Earth-Wealth deities, such as Erezkigal, Hannahanna, Kamrušepa, Allani, Telipinu, and the Sun Goddess of Arinna

Ops was worshipped either sitting or kneeling, the body touching the ground, with offerings placed on the earth, not on an altar. This is a fossil of Proto-Italic earth worship. She is paired with Saturn as His consort and together they represent the buried seed (Saturn) and the earth that holds it (Ops). There are two festivals associated with Her:

. the Opalia-festival held on the 19th December, honouring Ops as the goddess of abundance, wealth and earth's hidden bounty. The date of the festival should be noted as this coincides with the feast of Saturnalia, in honour of Saturn, demonstrating that the two deities formed a primordial agricultural pair. It was celebrated by earth-touching rites.

. the Opiconsivia-festival held on 25th August, which marked the end of harvesting and the filling of the granaries. The festival honoured Ops Consiva as the Earth who stores; She is the womb who preserves life and as in the Opalia, she is worshipped with earth-touching rites. Opiconsivia was administered by the Vestal Virgins and presided over by the Pontifex Maximus, which illustrates the importance of the goddess, and that she was foundational. 

Ceres

Firstly, I must point out that  Ceres is the Proto-Italic Grain Mother. Her name descends from the Proto-Italic *kerh₂‑es ('the nourisher/grower')  which in turn is the reflex of the PIE root *kerh₂‑ ('to grow, nourish'). She is not the earth itself, but what the earth produces; she is the growth-mother, who causes plants to sprout and preserves human life through agriculture. From these roots we have the Latin verbs, creāre ('to cause to grow', 'to bring forth', 'to produce') and crēscere ('to grow', 'to increase', 'to come into being'). The literal interpretation of Her name is thus She-Who-Makes-Things-Grow. Ceres has the following functions:

. the sprouting of grain

. agricultural cycles

. human nourishment

. the continuity of the community

She represents the Earth Mother in the aspect of agriculture, not as soil, the womb, or the cosmic principle, but as the productive force in the Earth Mother complex. Ceres is worshipped alongside Liber (male fertility) and Libera (female fertility): the Aventine Triad; within this triad, She is the mature, sustaining Earth Mother, while Liber is the young male vegetation god, and Libera, the young vegetation goddess. This triad of deities were worshipped in a major temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome, which according to tradition was founded in 493 BCE.

The Aventine Triad preserves an ancient Indo-European structure, which also appears in the following cultures:

. Greek-Demeter + Dionysus + Persephone

. Germanic-Nerthus + Freyr + Freyja

. Vedic-Aditi + the  Aśvins

. Balto-Slavic-Earth Mother + vegetation twins

The reason for the location of the temple of this cult on the Aventine Hill is because it was the centre of the plebeian population, a district of famers, traders and freedmen. It was politically opposed to Capitoline cults and was the religious heart of the plebs. The triad symbolised the protector of the supply of grain and plebeian rights and identity. There were three rites attached to the triad:

The Cerelia

A seven day festival. possibly beginning on 19th April, featuring the ludi Ceriales, circus games held in the circus maximus, nighttime rituals and field-purification rites.

The Ambarvalia

A very ancient Roman rite, carried out in late May, involving walking around the fields, which is the literal meaning of ambervalia-amb-'around' and arvalia, plural for 'fields'. The literal meaning of this term is 'the-going-around-the-fields'. The purpose of the rite was to ensure the lustration of the fields and it involved a triple circumambulation of the boundaries of the fields including a sacrificial procession of a pig, a sheep and a bull. This is an ancient Indo-European ritual which is also found in Greek, Vedic and Hittite traditions.

There were two versions of the rites, a public one, led by the Fratres Avales, the Arval Brothers, one of the most ancient of Roman priestly colleges, consisting of twelve priests, and a private one carried out by individual landowners on their estates. While the cult of Ceres was plebeian, Her festivals were celebrated by all Roman social classes.

The aforementioned rites are specific to Ceres, but the following belong to Liber and Libera:

The Liberalia

This festival is specific to both Liber and Libera and was held on 17 March, marking the beginning of fertility in both nature and mankind. The sacerdotes Liberi were elderly wandering priestesses of Liber and Libera, who sold honey cakes (liba) in the streets and offered them as sacrifices to Liber and Libera on portable altars on behalf of their buyers. They did not belong to any priestly college or were tied to any temple, but were rural, non-elite street-level priestesses. They performed bawdy, ecstatic rites involving chanting, fertility invocations, libations of wine and engaged in vulgar humour.

Liber presides over the coming of age of boys, and during the festival the boys removed their bulla (protective childhood amulet) and put on the toga virilis, which translates as the 'toga of manhood'. It must be borne in mind, however, that only freeborn Roman boys were permitted to wear the toga. An exception to this was when a servus ('slave') was freed by his master and became a libertus ('freedman').  

As a counterpart, but not the equivalent of the Greek Dionysus, Liber was worshipped through ritual drinking and ecstatic rites. The first-fruits of wine were offered to Him and vineyards were blessed in His name. During the Liberalia, normal social boundaries were suspended and there was absolute freedom of speech; this symbolised the unrestrained and overflowing force of nature.

As a vegetation god, He was responsible for male fertility in livestock, the protection of vines and orchards, and for the sap rising in Spring. The fascinus, a large phallus was carried in processions through the fields, to ward off evil, protect crops and ensure fertility. At the end of the procession it was crowned with a wreath by women: the symbolism here should be obvious. This rite is a direct survival of Indo-European phallic fertility cults. The noun relates to the verb fascinare (to cast a spell or charm), the English verb 'to fascinate' being derived from this. Related Indo-European cults:

. Greek-Dionysus and the phallophoria

. Vedic- śiśna‑devāḥ ('phallus gods') and fertility rites

. Slavic-Yarilo and spring fertility rites (involving boundary walking as in the Roman)

. Germanic-Freyr and the sacred phallus

. Celtic-Cernunnos and phallic stones

While Liber is associated with male sexual maturity, Libera is associated with the female and with reproductive cycles. Unlike boys, girls were not granted the toga as this was a male only garment, but their hairstyles were changed and they were prepared for the onset of puberty and the first menstruation. They also dedicated their toys to the household gods as a sign that they were transitioning from childhood to adulthood.

While Liber was responsible for the rising of the sap, Libera oversaw the maturation of fruit, ensuring the fertility of women and female livestock and participating in field purification. Her cult included fertility invocations for conception, the protection of pregnant women and rituals for safe childbirth.  

Bona Dea

Bona Dea translates as the 'good goddess', but Her actual name is not known. Her true name was known only to Her priestesses. She was a chthonic Earth Mother, a patron of women's health, childbirth, fertility and was worshipped in women-only rites. She was a goddess of healing herbs and associated with snakes. In contrast to Ceres, She was the hidden, nocturnal face of the Roman Earth Mother. Her most important rite was the December Nocturnal Festival, presided over by the Vestal Virgins in a house provided by the Pontifex Maximus. Only elite Roman women attended the rites, which involved the use of wine, herbs and healing plants. The room in which it was performed had a cave-like structure with decorations of serpents and vines; all of these things are indicative of the chthonic nature of the goddess. Within Her temple resided a sacred snake. She was thus the earth as a healer.

Reasons for Her Name Being Hidden

1. As the cult was hidden from men, so it was not permitted for them to know Her name. 

2. Her name was too sacred to be spoken aloud.

3. Hers was a mystery cult and so only initiates were allowed to know Her name and were required to keep it secret.

4. Her cult involved the transmission of secrets in the domain of women, which men were not permitted to know.

5. Her cult may have been pre-patriarchal and possibly pre-Indo-European in origin.

6. According to Macrobius, She was originally called Fauna, the wife or daughter of Faunus, an ancient forest and fertility god. She secretly drank wine and consequently was beaten to death by Faunus with myrtle. She was later deified, and Her death was the reason for Her cult being exclusively dominated by women.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Eleven, the Italic Sky Father

 Iupiter (Jupiter) is the Sky Father of the Italic peoples, which of course includes the Romans. His name derives from the Proto-Italic *Djous patēr ('Sky Father'). Along with the Greek Ζεύς πατήρ (Zeus pater) and the Sanskrit Dyaus‑pitṛ́, it is one of the clearest reflexes of the PIE *Dyēus‑ph₂tēr.

Reflexes of the Italic Sky Father

The Roman Sky Father

Iupiter/Iuppiter/Jupiter/Juppiter is of course the best attested source, and for preference I use the term Iupiter in this series of essays as I consider it the most accurate form of His name. It should be noted by those who may not be familiar with Latin that the initial 'I' or 'J in Iupiter/Jupiter is pronounced as a 'Y'.

 Like the Greek Zeus, Iupiter was both the supreme god and the deity associated with thunder, along with law, oaths, sovereignty, and His cult was situated on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, in the Temple of Jupiter (Iupiter Optimus Maximus). According to tradition, the temple was dedicated in 509 BCE at the beginning of the Republic. This was the ritual centre of the Roman state, where consuls took office, oaths and treaties were sworn, triumphs ended and the generals took the spoils of war. 

The Chief Priest, flamen Dialis of Iupiter was chosen in childhood and was regarded as the living representative in the god's cult. He performed daily sacrifices to Iupiter and presided over oaths, treaties and the protection of the Roman state. Like many Indo-European priests there were manifold taboos which he had to live by, such as not riding a horse, not touching metal, not naming certain objects, et cetera. The flamen Dialis was the Roman continuation of the Indo-European Sky Father priesthood in parallel to the Umbrian priests of Iupater Fisius, the Greek priests of Zeus Polieus and the Vedic hotṛ priests of Dyaus Pitar.

The other two flamen were the flamen Martialis (the priest of Mars) and the flamen Quirinalis (the priest of Quirinus). Together with the flamen Dialis they made up the three flamines maiores (the 'greater priests') and signify the tripartite structure of Indo-European religion:

flamen Dialis

Iupiter: sovereignty, law, oaths. A highly sacred priest, heavily restricted by many taboos.

flamen Martialis

Mars: war. A priest less restricted than the flamen Dialis.

flamen Quirinalis

Quirinus: agriculture, fertility, community. A priest less restricted than the flamen Dialis.

The speculated etymology of flamen is quite instructive: 'one who burns'/'attends the sacred fire'. This activity links the flamen with:

. Vedic brāhman (priest)

. Germanic blót (sacrifice)

. Old Norse blóta (to sacrifice)

The root meaning of the above three terms is 'to swell, to burn, to offer by fire'. Again, this is an ancient Indo-European concept, the worship of the gods with the element of fire. Thus, the full interpretation of flamen maiores would be 'the greater fire-priests'.

The Umbrian Sky Father

Iupater/Iupater Fisius

The epithet fisius means 'of the hearth', thus the full interpretation of Iupater Fisius is Sky Father of the Sacred Hearth. This is the direct cognate of the Roman Iupiter. The sacred hearth was the hearth of the entire community and He was its divine protector. The Umbrian Iguvine Tablets describe fire rituals related to this god. His cultic role according to the tablets centred around major state sacrifices, the purification of the city and army, and sacred lustration rituals.

The Iguvine Tablets consist of seven bronze tablets written in the Umbrian language, which is closely related to Latin, and they date back to the 3rd to 4th centuries BCE. The ancient city of Iguvium (modern Gubbio) was the pre-Roman administrative, religious and cultic centre of the Umbrian people. Apart from the Latin sources, these tablets are the most important source for Italic pre-Christian religion. They provide details about ceremonial processions, sacrifices, prayers, rituals and invocations. The Iguvine priesthood were the Atiedian Brothers (fratres Atiedii), a hereditary fraternity responsible for carrying out rituals and making offerings to the major Umbrian deities. The strict rules and fixed formulas demonstrate that Umbrian religion was a highly formalised one, not primitive in nature and showed a continuity with Indo-European ritual structure. In addition to carrying out highly complex and exact rites, the priesthood was also responsible for the interpretation of omens from the gods. Unlike the Capitoline Hill in Rome, there was no single monumental temple: instead the priesthood carried out the rites in a sacred precinct, a ritual enclosure on the slope of Mount Ingino.

The Oscan Sky Father

Diuve / Díuveí

His name preserves the old PIE root *dyew‑ ('bright sky'). He is thus the 'Sky God'/'Heavenly One'. The Oscan reflex of the Indo-European Sky Father is the least well preserved and only fragmentary information survives. Oscan inscriptions of the reflex appear in southern Italy (Samnium, Campania, Lucania). The clearest forms of the reflex are:

. Dívei Patrei ('to Father Sky')

. Dípatres ('Sky Father')

. Díveís ('to Iupiter')

All of these forms are cognates of:

. Latin Iupiter 

. Umbrian Iupater

. Greek  Zeus Patēr

. Vedic Dyáus Pitā́

Oscan inscriptions indicate that He was associated with mountain sanctuaries, storms, oaths and treaties. Although the priestly titles have not been preserved, we do know that there was a state-level formal priesthood and a sacred enclosure from the inscriptions at the Samnite sanctuary in Pietrabbondante: Díveís Patereís ('to Iupiter the Father') and Díveís sakaraklú ('to Iupiter of the sacred enclosure').

The Sabine Reflex

Diespiter ('Day-Sky Father')

He is a cognate of Iupiter and His areas of responsibility are the sky, daylight and oaths. This deity was later merged with the Underworld God, Dispater ('Underworld Father') but originally the two deities and their names were distinct. The Sabine form of the Sky Father is preserved in Latin sources as Dius Fidius (the 'Sky Father of Oaths'). His name is related to:

. Latin Diovis/Iovis (Iupiter)

. Umbrian Iupater

. Oscan Dívei Patrei

. Greek Zeus Patēr

. Vedic Dyáus Pitā́

His name is the pure Indo-European form of Iupiter and appears in archaic prayers and formulas involving the sky, daylight, oaths and cosmic order. Oaths invoking Him must be sworn in daylight under the open sky, which acts as a witness. This a classic Indo-European feature. As a pre-Roman form of Iupiter, He preserves the oldest layer of that god's identity. His archaic attributes and functions are:

. The father of gods and men

. The Sky Father

. The Shining Sky

. The guarantor of cosmic order

. A witness to oaths

. The bringer of daylight

. The bringer of storms

Due to the great antiquity of this deity, and the fact that he is is a 'linguistic fossil', we have no surviving evidence of a dedicated priesthood but it is highly unlikely that He did not have one. 

The Faliscan Reflex

Iopater/Iupater/Iupater Faliscus

In other words He is Iupater of the Faliscans. It is known that they had a state priesthood but it cannot be proven that this was the same as the Roman flamen Dialis. They had sacred fire cults and oath taking rituals. Like the other Italic reflexes, Iupater was a god of sovereignty, the sky, daylight, oaths and sacred fire, and was a very archaic form of the deity, close to the Umbrian and early Latin variants. The evidence for Iupater Faliscus comes from inscriptions from the 7th to the 3rd century BCE. In early Italic society, such as the Faliscans, there was often little in the way of monumental architecture, which indicates that the gods were worshipped in open-air sanctuaries, on hilltops and with fire altars. This matches the pattern of the Umbrians and Oscans.

Comparison of the Italic Sky Father with the Greek

Similarities

Both names share the same linguistic root and descend from the PIE *Dyēus‑ph₂tēr, 'Sky Father'.

Iupiter < Diēus‑pater

Zeus Patēr < Dyēus‑pater

Both deities are sky and daylight gods, governing storms and granting weather omens. They are supreme gods in their respective religions and oversee oaths, treaties, legal agreements and truthfulness in general. This is reflected in their by-names: Zeus Horkios (Zeus of Oaths) and Iupiter Fidius (Iupiter of Trust).

Both gods are intimately associated with kingship and authority. They share thunderbolt symbolism and have many localised epithets. Each god is also invoked in war and peace.

Differences

While Zeus is a mythic personality, Iupiter is abstract and personal, represented more by symbols than by stories. Zeus did not have a universal priesthood as each city had its own priests. Iupiter had a single and highly regulated priesthood, the flamen Dialis. Greek worship was more temple-centred while Iupiter was more likely to be worshipped in the open air. Unlike Zeus, Iupiter was central to the Roman state.

Greek Influences on the Roman

From the 4th century BCE in Roman iconography, Iupiter began to be depicted as a bearded, muscular man, seated on a throne, holding a thunderbolt and accompanied by an eagle. Originally, the Italic peoples symbolised the god by a stone, the Iupiter lapis. This stone was kept in the Temple of Iupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill. The most solemn of oaths were sworn on it, 'per Iovem lapidem!', 'by Iupiter's stone!' The stone has not survived and no classical author has given a full description of it, but it is likely to have had the following features:

. smooth and rounded

. oval or egg-shaped

. unworked (not carved)

. kept on a pedestal or stored in a chest

. dark in colour

. small enough to be held

Some scholars consider that the stone may have been a meteorite and this is also my assumption, for there had to be something symbolically significant about this stone for it to be held in such reverence. Indeed, it was considered to be the very embodiment of Iupiter Himself. In addition to this stone, the early Iupiter was also symbolised by lightning, fire and the sky.

Early Rome had no myths concerning Iupiter, and thus they adopted and adapted those of Zeus from the Greeks. Some of Iupiter's epithets and cult titles were influenced by the Greeks, such as Iupiter Tonans (Iupiter the Thunderer) from Zeus Keraunios, Iupiter Olympius from Zeus Olympios and Iupiter Panhellenios from Zeus Panhellenios.

Early Iupiter temples were Italic in design, but later ones copied heavily from Greek architecture and the adoption of statues in the Greek style. Roman intellectuals became influenced by Greek philosophy, adopting ideas such as Zeus/Iupiter as cosmic reason, Iupiter as the world-soul and as the stoic god. It is important to remember though, that despite the influence of Greek architecture, mythology and philosophy, Iupiter remained Roman, as the god of the state, laws and oaths, rather than a mythic and divine king. His priesthood remained strictly Italic, the festivals remained Roman and he never became as fully 'human' as Zeus.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Ten, the Greek Earth Mother

 Gaia is the primordial Earth Mother of the ancient Greeks. Her name Γαῖα / Γῆ comes from the PIE root *dʰéǵʰōm, meaning 'earth, ground, soil.' The older form of Her name is Gē / Gḗ Γῆ. The PIE root also gives us the following Indo-European reflexes: 

. Latin: humus ('soil'), homo ('human,' literally 'earth‑dweller')

. Old English: guma ('man,' archaic)

. Sanskrit: kṣam- ('earth')

. Avestan: zam- ('earth')

. Old Irish: du ('earth')

Gaia is both a mythological figure and a linguistic fossil of Earth as the foundational mother. Although Gaia and Gē descend from the same root, they have slightly different meanings; the former is more the mythological and poetic personification of Earth, while the latter is the common noun for 'earth, land'. Gaia is both the Earth Mother and the Earth itself. Other Indo-European parallels to Gaia where the Earth Mother is also the Earth itself are:

. Prithvi (Vedic/Sanskrit)

. Jörð (Old Norse)

. Erce (Anglo-Saxon)

. Zemyna (Lithuanian)

. Danu (Celtic)

. Mat Zemlya (Slavic)

As discussed in my previous essay, the Sky Father of the ancient Greeks is Zeus, but he is not the consort of Gaia, the Earth Mother. That honour belongs to Ouranos (Οὐρανός)-the sky, who is also Her son, whom she produces on Her own. Their union produces the Titans, Cyclopes, and Hecatoncheires. In addition to Ouranos, She also gives birth to Πόντος (Pontus)-the sea and Οὔρεα (Ourea)-the mountains, parthenogenetically. These three elements are the basic structure of the cosmos. In addition to having children with Ouranos, She also gives birth to four children with her son Pontus: Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto and Eurybia, who are all sea deities. With the castration of Ouranos by Cronus, the blood flowing from His wound onto Gaia produces the Gigantes (giants), the Erinyes (furies) and the Meliae (ash-tree nymphs). With the primordial god Tartarus, who is the personification of the deepest abyss, She produces the primordial monster, Typhon, who sought to overthrow Zeus. The birth of Typhon was a deliberate act in order to obtain revenge on Zeus for the imprisonment of Her children, the Titans. It is likely that Typhon is related to the Greek τύφω — 'to smoke, smoulder'. It is from Typhon that we get the English word, 'typhoon'.

Gaia, as a primordial being is one of the first beings to exist. Hesiod's Theogony has the following chronology in the creation of the cosmos:

. Chaos (strictly speaking a condition, not a being)

. Gaia (the first being/first substance)

. Tartarus (depth, boundary)

. Eros (generative force)

There are some interesting parallels with the Norse cosmology. The actual details differ of course, but the underlying structure is similar:

Greek: Chaos → Gaia → Tartarus → Eros

Norse: Ginnungagap → Fire (Muspelheim) + Ice (Niflheim) → Ymir

Both cosmologies begin with a gap, a void which is then filled with substances or elements. The key difference between the two is that whereas the Norse creation is mythical and physical, the Greek is philosophical and elemental.

The first beings of the Greek cosmology are:

. Gaia (earth)

. Tartarus (abyss)

. Eros (attraction)

. Nyx (night)

. Erebus (darkness)

The first beings of the Norse cosmology are:

. Ymir (proto-giant)

. Audhumla (cosmic cow)

. Búri (the first god)

It should be noted that while the first beings in the Norse cosmology are mythic persons, those in the Greek are cosmic principles.

The role of Gaia is significantly different from the Norse Jörð, the former being foundational in the creation of the world, the latter only having a secondary role. For me it is beyond doubt that Gaia is the strongest, fullest, and most complete reflex of the Indo-European Earth Mother that we possess.

The Cult of Gaia

Her cult was primordial, chthonic, pre-Olympian and pre-Hellenic. It was ritualistic, not temple-based, being that She is the earth itself. This made Her one of the first, if not the first deity to receive worship in ancient Greece. The oracle at Delphi originally belonged to Gaia, then Her daughter Themis, then Phoebe and finally Apollo. Like Erda in Wagner's Das Rheingold, She is the source of all knowledge, wisdom and prophecy. Gaia was worshipped via the pouring of libations on the ground, the burying of offerings and sacrifices without fire. She was also invoked as a witness in legal oaths, treaties and solemn promises, which is a typical characteristic of Indo-European Earth Mother rituals.In addition to Delphi, She also had shrines in Athens (Gaia Chthonia), Sparta, Olympia and Aegae. They were normally small, near the ground and associated with pits, caves and other natural features. As Gaia was the protector of children and fertility, She was invoked in childbirth, healing rituals and agricultural fertility. Snakes were sacred to Her as they are connected to the earth and symbolise regeneration. Gaia's cult was later absorbed by other goddesses such as:

. Demeter (agriculture)

. Hera (sovereignty and marriage)

. Rhea (motherhood)

. Cybele (mountain mother)

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Nine, the Greek Sky Father

 The Greek Sky Father, Ζεύς (Zeus, pronounced 'zay-us') is the Greek reflex of the PIE *Dyēus ('sky, daylight, sky-god'), which also gives us the Sanskrit Dyaus Pita, the Latin Iupiter, the Illyrian/Albanian Zojz and the Hittite Šiuš. He is both the supreme deity of the Greeks and their Thunder God. Functionally, He descends from the PIE *Dyēus ph₂tḗr, whose name is closest to the Latin Iupiter, which descends from the PIE directly via the Proto-Italic *Djous patēr/*Diēus patēr and then the Early Latin Diēspiter ('Sky-Father'), finally to the Classical Latin Iūpiter/ Iuppiter. The Sanskrit Dyaus Pita is likewise a very close linguistic reflex of the PIE.

The functions and domains of Zeus:

. Sky and weather.

. Thunder and lightning.

. Law, justice and kingship.

. Oaths and hospitality.

. Protection of cities and households.

The worship of Zeus was pan-Hellenic, but his worship and cult did vary in form from place to place.

Cultic Reflexes of Zeus

Zeus Olympios

This is Zeus in His most sovereign aspect, where He presides over the other Olympian gods at the centre of the Olympic games, and presides also over the games. Under this reflex Zeus is the god of the entire Greek world, not just a single city. His temple here contained a colossal gold and ivory statue of the god seated, measuring 41 ft in height, created by the sculptor Phidias around the year 435 BCE, raking as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The ivory parts of the sculpture required constant maintenance to prevent cracking due to humidity, and this maintenance became part of the cultic life of the temple. The temple was eventually desecrated and closed by order of the Christian Roman Empereror Theodosius II. The abandoned temple was stripped and never maintained afterwards, suffering from earthquakes in 522 and 531 CE. As for the statue itself, according to the Byzantine chronicler, it was dismantled and carried off in the 5th century to Constantinople and stored in the Palace of  Lausas as part of a private collection of pagan art, and possibly destroyed there in a palace fire in 475 CE.

Zeus Naios/Zeus Bouleus

Here at the oracle of Dodona, Zeus was worshipped along with the goddess Dione (Διώνη), a pre-Olympian deity, whose name literally means 'The Goddess', the feminine form of Zeus. Indeed it is the genitive form of Zeus, 'of Zeus'/'belonging to Zeus'. It is derived from the same PIE root, *Dyēus, from which we get Zeus, Dyaus, Iupiter and the Baltic Dievas. From this root we also get Dioskouroi, the 'sons of Zeus'. It would appear that Dione was the original consort of Zeus in the oldest mythological layer, prior to the emergence of Hera and Her displacement of Dione. It would seem that Hera's marriage to Zeus was a later political development, connected to the rise of certain city states.

The pairing of Zeus as Sky Father and Dione, the Sky Mother, who later absorbed Earth Mother traits, may reflect an older Proto-Indo-European pairing. The concept of a Sky Father AND a Sky Mother is not unique to the Greek mythology. It may also be found in the Germanic *Tiwaz and Zisa, as well as the Baltic *Dievas and *Dievaitė ('Sky-Goddess', 'Heavenly One'), and the Vedic Dyaus and Dyaus (female). The concept of the Sky Mother will have to be reserved for detailed discussion in a future post or series of posts as this will take me too far away from the focus of this series, which is the Sky Father and the Earth Mother.

At Dodona both deities are worshipped together; Zeus speaks through the rustling of the sacred oak, the wind and the sky. Dione is associated with the tree, the earth beneath it, the water from the sanctuary springs and the doves, which symbolise the divine presence. It must be stressed at this point that She is not Gaia, Demeter or any other cthonic underworld goddess, but a celestial goddess who touches the earth.

The oracle of Dodona contained the following elements:

. The Sacred Oak of Zeus. Priests interpreted the rustling of its leaves, the creaking of its branches and the sound of the wind passing through it as the literal voice of Zeus or Dione.

. The Bronze Cauldrons and Tripods. These were situated around the Sacred Oak and when struck by the wind they sounded like bells and the sounds were interpreted as messages from Zeus and Dione.

. The Selloi/Helloi. These were the male priests of Zeus at Dodona who slept on the ground, never washed their feet and lived in ritual purity. They interpreted the signs given by Zeus.

. The Paleiades. These were the priestesses of Dione, three in number (according to later tradition). They are a direct link to Dione, whose sacred animal was the dove, and this is the meaning of 'Paleiades'. They interpreted the signs given by Dione, one method being through the movement of the doves. 

. Lead Tablets. Pilgrims would write their questions on thin lead tablets and hand them to the priest or priestess who collected and read them, and with the signs given at the oracle, interpreted them on behalf of the gods. The answer to the question was given orally and loudly to the pilgrim and then the tablet was left behind. Eventually, by Christian imperial decree, the Sacred Oak was cut down and the site abandoned.

Zeus Polieus

As Protector of the City of Athens, Zeus was the guardian of civil order. He is both the political and moral centre of the city, the protector of the polis (the Greek city-state). Emphasis was placed upon justice, civic harmony and law. The annual ritual of the Bouphonia ('oxe slaying') took place in Athens, an exceedingly ancient ritual, so much so that in classical times the Athenians themselves no longer understood it. The Bouphonia had the following steps:

. The ox approaches the altar of Zeus Polieus of its own free will and eats the sacred grain (barley cakes prepared by the priests), again of its own free will.

. A man, designated for this purpose, kills the ox with an axe.

. The killer (bouphonos-'ox-killer') of the ox flees immediately.

. The axe is put on trial for murder. Witnesses are summoned, the axe is found guilty and then cast into the sea.

. The ox is butchered and the community shares the meat and is symbolically absolved of guilt. This is the only type of ox sacrifice permitted on the Acropolis. The Bouphonia is clearly a relic of Bronze Age religion which long predates classical Greek religion and its antiquity can be seen in the following features:

. Animism.

. Object trial (the axe as a substitute for a person).

. The concept that animals can commit sacrilege.

. Taboo logic.

The Bouphonia is a Bronze Age reflection of Indo-European sacrifice myths: in this case it is a scapegoat myth or 'Guilt-Transference-Sacrifice'. Scholars have identified the following three types of sacrifice myths:

. The First Sacrifice Myth. Examples include the Vedic sacrifice of Purusha, the primordial being and cosmic giant, whose body becomes the world, following its sacrifice by the Devas. This is echoed in the Norse myth of Ymir, the primordial giant who is slain by Odin and His brothers, and his body becomes the world. 

A much weaker reflex of this myth is to be found in the story of the sacrifice of Remus by his brother Romulus. This is not a cosmogonic myth but a watered down and highly euhemerised version of the PIE original, which accounts for how Rome was built by his sacrifice. His death was ritually necessary for the foundation of Rome. The death of Remus is also a reflex of the Indo-European twin myth, which I intend to explore in a future essay or series of essays: time does not permit me to expand on this in this current post. 

An Iranian parallel to the Purusha myth is that of the first man, the primordial being, Gayōmart (Avestan: Gaya Maretan, meaning 'Mortal Life'), created by Ahura Mazda and killed by Ahriman, the so-called 'evil spirit' of Zoroastrian dualism. As his body decays on the earth, from his seed grows the first human pair, Mashya (male) and Mashyana (female), As in the Norse myth, other things have their origin in his body as well, such as metals, minerals and plants. He is the origin of all life.

In the Greek myth of Dionysus Zagreus, the former is the mystical and primordial form of Dionysus in the Orphic religion, an underworld form of Dionysus, who is born, dismembered, eaten and reborn, thus a god of death, rebirth and the soul, a Greek expression of the Indo-European dismembered cosmic being.

Fragments of this myth are also found in Baltic mythology. No single mythic narrative survives, only scraps to be found in the Lithuanian dainos, the Latvian dainas, agricultural songs and ritual laments. What we can deduce from the Baltic sources is that a divine or semi‑divine figure is cut, mown, or killed, and from his body comes fertility, crops, or cosmic order.

. The Guilt-Transfer Sacrifice

This is where the Bouphonia fits in. Parallels may be found in Germanic law, where objects such as weapons, tools and even animals could be formally tried, Vedic rituals where the sacrificial knife is ritually purified, and in Celtic rituals where the guilt is transferred to a symbolic object.

The Royal/Horse Sacrifice

Examples may be found in Irish kingship rituals, the Roman October sacrifice of a war-horse, Baltic and Germanic horse burials and royal rites, and most especially the Vedic Aśvamedha, the clearest example of the royal horse sacrifice by the most powerful of kings. The subject of horse sacrifice is something which I wish to explore in a future essay.

Zeus Keraunios

Throughout ancient Greece, Zeus was worshipped as the Storm God, invoked for protection during storms, appeased to prevent lightning strikes and associated with mountain-tops and open-air altars. 'Keraunios' (κεραύνιος) has the meaning 'of the thunderbolt', 'thunder-wielding', 'striking with lightning'. It derives from the PIE root *ker‑, meaning 'to strike, cut, smash', a concept preserved with the following Indo-European Thunder Gods:

. Indra strikes with the vajra.

. Thor strikes with Mjölnir.

. Perkūnas strikes with the stone axe.

. Perun strikes with the axe.

. Donar strikes with the club.

. Taranis strikes with the wheel/thunderbolt.

Zeus along with other Indo-European Thunder Gods is closely associated with the oak tree, which attracts more lightning than any other species of tree. This effectively is a meterological observation which over time has become a religious association. The reason for their attarction of the lightning is due to their height and mositure content.

Zeus Xenios

In this reflex Zeus was the protector of strangers and guests, who enforced the rules of hospitality toward strangers and punished those who broke these laws. The Greek noun xénos has the meaning, 'stranger, guest, foreigner, host, guest-friend'. The Greek form may be traced to the PIE *ǵénh₁os /* ǵénos ('stranger, guest, someone from another clan'). Sacred hospitality was clearly a deeply ingrained concept amoung the Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Zeus Ktesios

This is the domestic form of Zeus, worshipped in homes, the protector of property and the family. The etymology of 'Ktesios' (Κτήσιος) suggests that the word in all its forms is connected to possessions, property, acquisition; thus Zeus is the god who protects the home, its contents, wealth and prosperity.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother, the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Eight, the Slavic Earth Mother

 Proto-Slavic Earth Mother

The Proto-Slavic Earth Mother, *Mati Zemja or *Mati Syra Zemlja, descends from the Proto-Balto-Slavic *Mātē Žemē / *Mātē Zemjā, the Proto-Baltic reflex being *Mātē Zemjā. The Proto-Balto-Slavic in turn descends from the PIE *Dʰéǵʰōm Méh₂tēr. 

*Mati Zemja and *Mati Syra Zemlja have the meanings of 'Mother Earth' and 'Moist Mother Earth' respectively. She is both primordial and non-anthropomorphic. She is the receiver of the dead and the protector of women, childbirth and agriculture. As the second reflex of Her name indicates, She is associated with moisture and soil as well as oath-taking; Her worship is strongly attested in later individual Slavic cultures.

East Slavic Earth Mother

The Russian Reflex

The Russian reflex is the closest continuation of the Proto-Slavic. Mat' Syra Zemlya is invoked in oaths, an example being, 'Let the Earth Swallow me if I lie.' She has this function in common with the Baltic reflexes. Offerings are made to Her in rituals, including ploughing and protection rituals, the earth being eaten or kissed.

The Ukrainian Reflex

This is very similar to the Russian: Mati Zemlia/Syra Zemlia is invoked in wedding rituals and offerings of bread, salt and milk are made to Her in ploughing rituals, funerals and wedding blessings. Like the Russian reflex, She receives the dead in Her embrace and She also acts as a witness in human disputes.

The Belarusian Reflex

Mac Syra Ziamla (modern spelling: Mać Syra Ziamla) has the same shared functions as Her Russian and Ukrainian counterparts. It would be helpful at this stage to clarify these functions:

1. Fertility of crops and soil. Offerings of grain, bread, salt and milk are made to Her to seek Her blessings for the fertility of the land.

2. Receiver of the dead. Burial is regarded as the return to the Mother and the Earth is addressed as the Mother in funeral rites. 

3. Oaths are sworn 'by Mother Earth' and these are considered as inviolable.

4. Healer and purifier. Soil is taken from a sacred spot, such as a crossroads, under a threshold or from a field's first furrow and placed on the affected part of the body, to heal wounds, fevers and swellings. The healer then addresses Mother Earth directly in these words or similar formulae: 'Moist Mother Earth, take the illness into Yourself.' This is strongly attested in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian charms.

 Another method is for the sick person to lie on the ground in order to transfer the illness to the Earth, appropriate wording being, 'Mother Earth, take my weakness; give me your strength.' This is especially strongly attested in Russian and Belarusian charms.

Symbolic objects which represent the illness can also be buried in the Earth, the sickness then being transferred to it. This is attested in Ukrainian and Belarusian healing magic.

Soil mixed with water or milk may also be used to wash the sick person, with the remaining fluid poured onto the Earth as an offering.

Earth taken from a field sprinkled around a house or barn protects against disease, misfortune, storms and evil spirits. This rite is attested in all three East Slavic cultures. After a new house is constructed, Earth is placed in all four corners, possibly with the addition of bread and salt, and Mother Earth is invoked to protect the household. This is especially attested in the Ukrainian tradition.

Earth carried in a small pouch can offer protection to a soldier, a pregnant woman or a traveller. This is attested in Russian and Belarusian sources. Earth may also be used to protect livestock against disease and witchcraft by rubbing it on the forehead of cattle, scattering it in the barn and placing it under any threshold that animals cross.

5. Protector of women and childbirth. The invocation of the Earth Mother for fertility, childbirth and female well-being is found across all three East Slavic traditions.

The Russian tradition preserves the most archaic form of the Earth Mother, while the Ukrainian tradition has an emphasis on fertility, agriculture and household rites. The Belarusian tradition places a strong emphasis on healing and weather magic.

Belarusian Weather Magic

The following are examples of archaic Slavic rites preserved in the Belarusian tradition:

In order to produce rain, water is poured onto the earth while repeating an appropriate formula such as, 'Mother Moist Earth, drink and give us rain.' Similar to this, a stone may be washed and placed on the earth and as the stone 'sweats' it encorages the sky to do likewise. A young girl (presumably a virgin), as a symbol of purity is dressed in white and led into a field barefoot and pours either water or milk onto the soil, and asks the Earth Mother for rain.

In the case of stopping storms, a woman may take a handful of soil from under the threshold and throw it towards the approaching storm, saying 'Mother Earth, hold your child-calm the wind.' Soil may also be placed on the roof or in the attic in order to 'anchor' the house against lightning. Burying a burning coal in the soil 'cools' the storm. The idea is that the earth is cool while the fire of the lightning is hot.

In order to guard against draught or excessive rain, farmers would draw a protective barrier around their fields by sprinkling soil from a sacred spot. Another means of protection was to bury bread, salt and earth at the edge of the field. The placing of earth from a graveyard on a field was done in order to 'bind' destructive weather.

In Belarusian folklore, wind was treated as a child of the Earth Mother, and so a person kneels and whispers the following into a hole in the ground (representing the Earth Mother's ear), 'Mother Earth, quiet your winds.' The gesture of pressing one's palm to the earth accomplishes the same thing.

For protection against lightning, a person would either touch or lie flat on the ground and ask the Earth Mother for protection. Placing a pinch of soil in the hearth fire would also cool the path of the lightning.

West Slavic Earth Mother

The West Slavic reflex is more fragmented and less strong than the East Slavic version. She appears mainly under the name of Matka Ziemia / Matka Země / Matička Zem. Like the East Slavic Earth Mother, Her functions are recognisably the same:

. Fertility of the soil.

. Protection of the household.

. Receiving the dead.

. Agricultural blessings.

. Moral witness in oath-taking.

The Polish Reflex

Matka Ziemia/Matka Ziema Wilgotna has the meaning of 'Mother Earth'/'Moist Mother Earth'. She has been partly syncretised with the Roman Catholic Virgin Mary. Her functions are:

. Fertility: farmers bless the first furrow with bread or grain, which is a pan-Slavic practice.

. Funerary: earth is placed on the coffin, symbolising the 'return to the mother'.

. Household protection: soil is sprinkled in the corners or a new home.

. Oaths: mediaeval Polish legal texts preserve the formula, 'by the earth'.

The Czech Reflex

Matka Země/Matička Zem has the meaning of 'Mother Earth'/'Little Mother Earth'. Her functions are:

. Household protection: earth is placed under the threshold of the home.

. Healing: the use of soil in charms to alleviate swellings and fevers.

. Agricultural rites: spring authorings and first-furrow blessings.

The Slovakian Reflex

Matička Zem again has the same meaning of the Czech, 'Little Mother Earth' and She has the following functions:

. Fertility: offerings of grain or bread are made at the edges of the field.

. Funerary: the earth is invoked as 'the mother who receives the dead.'

. Weather lore: She is appealed to for protection of crops against storms.

Ziva/Siva/ Živa/ Żiwia

Although She is not identical to Matka Ziemia, nevertheless as a fertility goddess, She is the closest mythological (not linguistic) construct to the East Slavic Mat’ Syra Zemlya. Ziva or using Her Latinised name, Siva, is referred to by the German priest, Helmold of Bosau in the 12th century Chronica Slavorum as a goddess worshipped by the Polabian Slavs, who is associated with fertility, vitality and life, and was honoured with offerings and rituals. Although She is not referred to as an Earth Mother, she does fulfill all those functions. Her name derives from the Proto-Slavic root, *živa which gives us the verb žiti, 'to live', the noun život, 'life' and the adjective živa, 'alive, living'. Thus Her name may be interpreted as 'The Living One', and 'She-Who-Gives-Life'.

The cult of this goddess was especially strong among the Obrodites, the Veleti and the Rani, the westernmost Slavs living in today's Germany. Her cult would have been seasonal with celebrations taking place in Spring and Summer. There may be a connection with the Old High German goddess, Zisa but this is a minority view. Both Ziva and Zisa share the same PIE roots, *gʷih₃w‑/*gʷeyh₃‑, which have the meaning of 'to live, to be alive, life and vitality'. From these PIE roots descend the Proto-Slavic *živa and the Proto-Germanic *kwis‑ /*kʷeis, from which we derive the OHG Zisa. Both goddesses are life-giving deities, and it should be remembered that the Polabian Slavs lived directly next to Germanic tribes, hence the potential for mythological overlap and cultural exchange. 

South Slavic Earth Mother

The Serbian/Montenegrin/Bosnian Reflex

She is invoked in oaths ('By Mother Earth')The earth is called Majka Zemlja Vlažna, meaning 'Moist Mother Earth'. Soil is used in both healing charms, curse-breaking and oath rituals. In thunderstorms, people touch the earth and ask for protection.

The Croatian Reflex

In agricultural blessings, the earth is addressed as Majka Zemlja, meaning 'Mother Earth' and soil is placed in the corners of new houses for protection and the concept of 'returning to the mother' is emphasised in funeral rites.

The Slovenian Reflex

The earth is called Mati Zemlja, 'Mother Earth' and Matička Zemlja, 'Little Mother Earth', and She survives in spring fertility rites and is invoked in healing and weather magic.

The Bulgarian Reflex

The earth is called Zemjata and treated as a living being. The Bulgarian reflex of the goddess preserves earth-touching rituals the strongest; women lie on the ground for fertility and soil is used in healing. The earth is also invoked in rituals to summon the rain.

The Macedonian Reflex

 Majka Zemja is invoked in rain rituals which involve the pouring of water on the earth, and is also invoked in oath-taking and funeral rites.

Živa / Živana

Sharing the same linguistic root as the Polabian  Živa, but not Her functions, the South Slavic Živa / Živana is a supernatural figure who is associated with life, fertility and vegetation, and appears in Serbian and Croation charms, but there is no evidence that she was worshipped as a deity or had a cult dedicated to her. She is thus a folkloric figure, not a mythological one, unlike the Polabian Živa. 

  

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Seven, the Slavic Sky Father

Proto-Slavic Sky Father

*Svarogъ (English, '*Svarog') is the Proto-Slavic Sky Father. This theonym is derived from the Proto-Slavic root *svar‑ ('bright,shining, clear sky, fire, heat, radiance') and is attested in Old Church Slavonic, Russian, Polish and Serbo-Croatian. This in turn is derived from the reconstructed PIE *s(w)er‑ /*swer‑ ('to shine, to glow, to burn'). This PIE root appears in several Indo-European languages:

. Sanskrit svár — 'sky, heaven, sunlight'.

. Vedic Svar / Svarga — 'heaven, the radiant sky'.

. Avestan xvarənah‑ — 'glory, shining divine radiance'.

Thus *Svarog means 'The Bright One', 'The Radiant One', 'The Shining Heavenly Father'. Scholars regard *Svarog as the closest functional (not linguistic) reflex of the PIE Sky Father  *Dyēus ph₂tēr. As in the case of other Indo-European religions there was a shift away from the original, older Sky Father as the chief deity to a younger Thunder God:

. Germanic- Thor overshadows Tyr.

. Greek- Zeus absorbs Dyaus. 

. Baltic- Perkūnas overshadows Dievas.

. Vedic- Indra replaces Dyaus.

Thus in the Slavic world Perun overshadows Svarog. 

Svarog becomes a more distant Sky Father and is no longer active in the running of the world: this function has been transferred to the Thunder God, Perun, who becomes the chief deity in historical Slavic paganism. He becomes the god who is invoked by princes and warriors, and in the agreement of treaties. Svarog remains as a sky-fire deity, the father of Dazhbog, a solar deity who is the giver of wealth, prosperity, and good fortune. The etymology of His name is dažd‑ / dať- 'to give' and bogъ-'god, fortune, wealth'. In other words, 'The Giving God', 'The God Who Gives Wealth/Good Fortune'. Svarog's other son in some traditions is Svarožič, his name meaning 'Son of Svarog' and He is a solar-fire deity. 

While Svarog's significance fades, becoming more distant and mythic, and Perun rises to dominance, Dazhbog becomes the culture-hero and the sole benefactor of Svarog. He is an essential link, middle generation or intermediary stage between the two deities. The Indo-European pattern of the shift of power and dominance from the original Sky Father to a more active, younger and martial deity is a reflection of what was happening in Indo-European society at that time, a move from pastoral  and sky- orientated cultures to warrior, storm-orientated societies. The Thunder God represented power, protection and active kingship.

The shift from the Indo‑European Sky‑Father (*Dyēus ph₂tēr) to the Thunder‑God (*Perkʷunos) occurred over a very long time period from  4,000 BCE to 2,500 BCE (See The Prehistorical Sky Father Who Predated Zeus , Alexander Gale, 1 June 2026), from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) on the Pontic-Caspian steppe. The rise of the Thunder God corresponded with the emergence of warrior elites, increased raiding and conflicts, the spread of the domestication of the horse and mobile warfare. These social changes necessitated the emergence of a warrior-protector deity over a more distant and abstract Sky Father. This shift was already underway before the dispersal of the Indo-Europeans and the beginning of the Bronze Age. During this time, before their dispersal, we see the rise in importance of the central myth of the Thunder God myth, the slaying of the dragon. See the excellent book, The Medieval Dragon: The Nature of the Beast in Germanic Literature, 1998 by Joyce Tally Lionarons, published by Hisarlik Pr.

Timeline

Early PIE	before 4000 BCE	Sky‑Father (Dyēus) is chief deity
Late PIE	4000–2500 BCE	Thunder‑god (Perkʷunos) rises in importance
Early Bronze Age	2500–1500 BCE	Thunder‑god becomes dominant in most IE cultures
Historical IE cultures	after 1500 BCE	Zeus, Indra, Thor, Perun, Perkūnas take over

East Slavic Sky Father

The East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian) reflex of the Sky Father is Svarog, as I have already discussed in The Proto-Slavic Sky Father section of this essay. Indeed, it is in the texts of the  East Slavs that His name is preserved best. While not worshipped historically, He survives in the mythic genealogy. His son, Svarožič does not survive independently and His functions appear to have been absorbed into the other son, Dazhbog. Indeed, East Slavs call themselves 'Dazhbog's grandchildren.'

West Slavic Sky Father

Svarog's name does not appear in West Slavic sources, and neither does Dazhbog's. The only reflex of the Sky Father is Svarožič. Among the West Slavs (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Polabians, Sorbs) He is a fire-god, war-god, oracle-god and the protector of the tribe. His name is attested as Zuarasici among the Sorbs and as Rethra among the Polabians. 

South Slavic Sky Father

Among the South Slavs (Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Slovenes) no names (with the exception of Dazhbog in Bulgarian apocrypha) have been preserved, only divine functions. Bulgarian folklore preserves a faint memory of a sky-smith figure. Fire rituals (kres, koleda, oganj) preserve the role of a fire-god. As already stated, the Bulgarian apocrypha is the only place where Dazhbog's name is preserved in the texts of the South Slavs. The Bulgarian Apocryphal Chronicle of 1073 refers to Him as a pre-Christian being and as a sun-related figure ('Dazhbog, the sun‑tsar'). He is demonised as a pagan ruler. His name, having survived well into the 11th century, the Christian scribes could not erase him, so they recast Him as an evil entity, although His solar character still shines through (if you excuse the intended pun!).

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Six, the Baltic Earth Mother

 Proto-Baltic Earth Mother

She is *Žemē‑ /*\Žemynā, derived from the PIE *dʰéǵʰōm, via the intermediary Balto-Slavic reflex of *Žemīnā. The PIE goddess theonym has the meaning 'earth, ground', the Proto-Balto-Slavic reflex: 'earth', and the Proto-Baltic: 'Earth Mother'. 

From the Proto-Baltic reflex we derive the Lithuanian Žemyna, the Latvian Zemes māte and the Lithuanian *semmē.

The Lithuanian Earth Mother, Žemyna

Žemyna has the meaning of 'Earth Mother', 'Earth Woman'. She personifies the earth, the nourishment it brings and the final resting place waiting for man. Her functions therefore are:

. Earth and fertility.

. Birth and life.

. Death and the underworld.

. Agriculture.

Consequently Her symbols are:

. Soil.

. Grain.

. Meadows.

. Flowers.

. Sacred bread.

. Beer used in libations.

Although Žemyna is the Earth Mother, She is not paired with the Sky Father, Dievas, as one would have expected but instead interacts with the Thunder God, Perkūnas, whose rains fertilise the earth, which parallels Thor's fertilisation of Jörð in the Germanic mythology. This pattern is also paralleled in the Slavic, Iranian, Vedic, Greek, Celtic and Hittite mythologies. This may be illustrated as follows:

The storm god brings rain → the earth becomes fertile → life begins.

There is one important difference between the Baltic mythologies and the other Indo-European ones in this regard: Žemyna is not married to Perkūnas, and neither is there any kind of genealogical relationship, which IS the case with Thor and Jörð, who are mother and son. In the mythology which is closest to the Baltic, the Slavic, this relationship is paralleled between Perun and Mat Syra Zemlya ('Mother Moist Earth'). The Slavic relationship is different in one aspect: the Slavic reflex of Mat Syra Zemlya is the earth itself, while the Baltic Žemyna is the goddess. This reminds me of the distinction between Erce (the goddess) and Eorðe (the earth itself) in the Old English Æcerbot. See: Erce, Anglo-Saxon Mother Goddess of the Earth

The Baltic mythology preserves the dual nature of the earth as both physical soil and a divine being as in the Anglo-Saxon mythology. The Slavic mythology however, only semi-personifies the 'Mother Moist Earth' and has a more ritualistic element, id est sworn oaths where the two entities are invoked together: 'Perun strike me, Earth swallow me.'

The Latvian Earth Mother

Zemes māte has the meaning of 'Mother of the Earth' and Her functions are:

. Guardian of fields.

. Guardian of land ownership.

. Guardian of burial grounds.

. Guarantor of agricultural prosperity.

She is both the physical earth and the personified Earth Mother. As in the Lithuanian tradition, the Latvian preserves the same concept of rain fertilising the earth. In this case, it is the Latvian thunder god, Pērkons who does the fertilising. One key difference between the Lithuanian and the Latvian mythologies is that the latter has over 60 variants of the Earth Mother, while the Lithuanian retains a single deity which occupies that function, the former preserving an ancient Indo-European or possibly pre-Indo-European tradition, before mythologies became more centralised and structured. However, these multiple variants are not separate goddesses but simply varied functions or faces of the same deity. 

The Old Prussian Earth Mother

As I have pointed out in my previous post, the Church and its military enforcers, the Teutonic Order, did a thorough job of committing cultural and physical genocide in Prussia, replacing most of the indigenous Prussians with German colonists. Not a great deal of the mythology has survived, and so we are heavily reliant upon comparative linguistics and following the patterns laid down in the Lithuanian and Latvian sources, which are likely to be very close the the Prussian system.

Linguistically, we can conjecture that the Earth Mother is likely to have been called *Semmēnā/*Semmīna. This is a reconstructed form and is based on semmē, the Old Prussian for 'earth' and the feminine suffix ‑in‑ / ‑inā, which is common in Baltic theonyms. This is also supported by the following Indo-European theonyms:

. Thracian Zemelā.

. Greek Semelē ('earth').

. Slavic Mat Syra Zemlya.

. Lithuanian Žemyna.

. Latvian Zemes māte.

The reconstructed Old Prussian theonym has the meaning 'She-of-the-earth' , 'Earth Mother'. We do know from Prussian sources that the earth was treated as a sacred being, 'Swayte Seme' ('Holy Earth'), and oaths were sworn to Her.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Five, the Baltic Sky Father

 Proto-Baltic Sky Father

The Proto-Baltic Sky Father is *Deivas (meaning 'god, sky deity'), a reflex of the PIE *Dyēus ph₂tēr, from whom the Proto-Germanic *Tiwaz, the Greek Zeus, the Roman Iupiter and the Vedic Dyáuṣ Pitṛ, the father of the 'heavenly twins', the Dieva dēli is derived. It is possible that the Proto-Baltic form of the god derives from the ultimate PIE version via an intermediary step, which can be proved linguistically: the Proto-Balto-Slavic *Deivas‑pats, from which the Slavic *Divъ (Transcribed in English as *Div) also derives, meaning 'god'.  

Lithuanian Sky Father, Dievas

From *Deivas we derive the Lithuanian Dievas, meaning 'shining one, god'. His functions:

. Sky god.

. Cosmic ruler.

. Moral overseer.

. Giver of prosperity and order.

In function, He matches the PIE *Dyēus ph₂tēr more closely than either Zeus or Iupiter, who became storm gods. Like *Tiwaz, He is remote and distant from the petty affairs of man. Unlike the other gods, He is not anthropomorphised and He is not a warrior; He delegates roles to the other gods. His function is cosmic and He rarely intervenes in the affairs of man. I must point out that while He closely resembles *Tiwaz, the latter was pushed aside by both Odin and Thor due to later developments in the Germanic world: this is not the case with Dievas, who was always remote and distant. Thus, unlike *Tiwaz, he naturally preserves the archaic functions of the PIE *Dyēus ph₂tēr.

Latvian Sky Father, Dievs

Dievs has the following functions:

. Sky god.

. Cosmic father.

. Moral overseer.

. Giver of order, prosperity and fate.

. Distant but benevolent.

The Latvian folk songs, known as the Dainas, preserve stories about this deity. From these we can derive further details about the god:

. Rides a white horse.

. Farmer of the sky.

. A giver of blessings.

. A judge of human behaviour.

. Visits the habitations of men to test their hospitality. (This compares well with Odin in the Eddas).

. Father of the heavenly twins, (the Dieva dēli).

In comparison to the Lithuanian Dievas, the Latvian Dievs appears to be a more personal god, who interacts with human beings, while Dievas is more abstract in nature.

The Lithuanian Dainos are the equivalent of the Latvian Dainas, but they appear to be much more archaic in nature and preserve the Indo-European Weltanschauung in a remarkably pure form, while the Dainas preserve more of the folklore.

Old Prussian Sky Father, Deiwas

At this point, it should be noted that the Old Prussian variant of the Sky Father is poorly attested, and the name of the deity has become a generic term for 'god'. Due to the conquest of Lithuania by the Teutonic Order, the native Prussian religion collapsed and the language regrettably became extinct with its unfortunate annex to Germany. Most of the surviving texts are catechisms written by Christian missionaries.The Old Prussian reflex of the deity is still clear from a linguistic point of view, but we lack the same level of mythological information in comparison to the Lithuanian and Latvian reflexes. 

These are the likely functions of Deiwas:

. The bright sky.

. Cosmic order.

. Moral authority.

. Father of the Heavenly Twins.

. Paired with an Earth Mother.

The Baltic language group is the oldest group within the Indo-European family, with lexical items close to Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. The same may be said about the mythology of the three Baltic peoples. Due to their very late Christianisation (14th-15th centuries), strong oral tradition, rural continuity, linguistic conservatism, and limited external influence, their languages and mythologies are very close to the source: the Proto-Indo-European. It therefore behooves laymen and pagans like me, along with scholars, to give greater attention to their study. In doing so we may shed more light on our own Celto-Germanic ancient past. This will be one of my aims for this blog.

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Four, the Celtic Earth Mother

 The Proto-Celtic Earth Mother

She has been reconstructed as *Danu, from whom we derive the Irish Reflex Danu and the Welsh Dôn. *Danu ultimately derives from the PIE reconstructed goddess, *Dānu, whose reflex is found in the Vedic Dānu, the mother of a primordial race, the Danavas. She is an extremely ancient water deity, who is indirectly defeated by Indra when He slays Her son, Vṛtra, the serpent/dragon, in order to release the waters. There are no hymns addressed to Her in the Rig Veda, but She is, nonetheless a divine entity, a deva‑matr̥, a 'mother of divine beings'. Her name is also preserved in the Iranian word Dānu, meaning 'river, running water'. Likewise, on the continent, the Celtic reflex of the goddess is preserved in the names of great rivers, such as the Danube (Latin name, Danuvius), the Don, Dnieper, Dniester and the Donets in Russia. The Daugava which runs through Belarus and Latvia from its source in Russia, flowing into the Baltic Sea. A tributary of the Daugava, the Dysna, flows through Lithuania and Belarus. Indeed, the meaning of the root behind the PIE *Dānu, the noun, * dānu‑ means 'river, stream, flowing water.' The underlying verbal root of the noun is *dʰenh₂‑ /*dʰen‑, 'to flow, run, drip.' *dānu‑ is reconstructed from the following reflexes:-

. Sanskrit: dā́nu — 'fluid, drop,' also the primordial mother.

. Avestan: dānu — 'river'.

. Old Irish: Danu — ancestral mother of the gods.

. Welsh: Dôn — same reflex.

. Hittite: dānu‑ — “river”.

Just as the Vedic Dānu is the mother of the Danavas, so the Iranian Dānava are the children of a primordial water deity, whose name was suppressed and consequently not preserved in the Avesta, but the concept is clearly there, and Her name survives in Her offspring. Due to the religious reforms of Zoroaster and the elevation of Ahura Mazda, ancient Indo-European deities were either demonised or erased. We see this pattern time and time again with all monotheistic religions, which are basically intolerant. Fortunately, the same or similar deities survive in the Rig Veda, which gives us insight into the Iranian reflexes. 

It is clear from all these reflexes that the Proto-Celtic *Danu and the PIE *Dānu is strongly associated with water, in particular, rivers. As is evident from the Vedic, Irish and Celtic mythologies, She is also an ancestral deity. This is demonstrated in the Irish mythology where Danu is said to be the mother of the Irish gods, the Tuatha Dé Danann ('the people of the goddess Danu') and in the Welsh mythology as the mother of the Welsh gods, the Plant Dôn ('the Children of Dôn').

My readers may be wondering why the PIE *Dānu and the Proto-Celtic *Danu should be considered to be Earth Mothers when they are so clearly associated with water and rivers? The answer to that question is that the ancestors did not draw such a clear cut distinction between these two domains. The waters that *Dānu and *Danu preside over are the waters beneath the earth, as opposed to the waters which rain down from the heavens. The rivers themselves were important boundary markers for the tribes who occupied the land. It should also be remembered that across Indo-European mythologies, creation begins with the primordial waters, and water is the source of life and fertility. The rivers thus, are the visible representations of the goddess, and it should be noted that hydronyms are the most ancient form of nomenclature that we have, and rarely change with the migrations of peoples.

It is interesting that the PIE and Celtic Earth Mothers do not have a male consort. The absence of such a consort is quite meaningful; *Danu belongs to the oldest ad deepest layer of Indo-European myth, where origin mothers are mothers, but not wives. Examples of such deities include the Vedic Dānu, the Greek Tethys (mother of rivers), the Norse Nótt (the personification of night and mother of Jörð), Jörð, (the personification of the earth), the Greek Gaia (the earth itself), the Vedic Pṛthivī (personification of the earth), and the Baltic Žemyna (the personification of the living earth). Broadly speaking, the various Indo-European Earth Mothers all appear before the Sky Father in the earliest layers of the cosmology; they have roles independent of the Sky Father. Indeed, in the Greek mythology, Gaia produces Uranus, the sky by Herself. In the Celtic mythology, *Danu, no father of Her offspring is mentioned. It is clear that the Earth Mother is older than the Sky Father by at last one cosmological generation. The children of the PIE and Proto-Celtic *Danu appear before the manifestation of the Sky Father. It is only with the appearance of the PIE Sky Father that marriage appears as an institution. The sky is a much later ordering principle.

Riders of the Sidhe, 1911, John Duncan, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Riders_of_th_Sidhe_(big).jpg

The Sky Father and Earth Mother: the Basis of All Indo-European Religions, Part Three, the Celtic Sky Father

 Having explored the Germanic Sky Father and Earth Mother in my previous posts, I wish to take the next logical step in exploring the Celtic mythology, focusing first on the Sky Father.

Unlike the Germanic mythology, there is no single Celtic Sky Father, but the role is shared among a cluster of deities, such as Taranis, Lugh, The Dagda, and Belenos. I will start by examining each of these deities in turn, exploring those characteristics which retain the Sky Father function.

Proto-Celtic Thunder God

*Toranos ('He of the thunder') is the hypothesised Proto-Celtic thunder god, from which we derive the Gaulish Toranis, the Old Irish Torann, and the Welsh Taran. It is likely that thunder and lightning, war, protection, fertility, and oath-keeping were all aspects of His function.

Taranis

Of all the aforementioned gods, it is He who has the closest resemblance to being a literal Sky Father. Like the Proto-Germanic *Þunraz, He is a thunder deity and His name is linked to the Proto-Celtic *toranos, 'thunder', which derives from the PIE *(s)tenh₂, 'to thunder'. *toranos is directly cognate with the Latin 'tonare' , 'to thunder'. Cognates in Celtic languages include the Old Irish torann, Middle Welsh taran and the Old Breton taran.

Taranis was equated by the Romans with Iupiter (Jupiter) in early mediaeval commentaries on Lucan's  work, Pharsalia. Epigraphic evidence also shows this direct equation, primary examples being a first century CE dedication found in Dalmatia to Iovi Tanaro (Iupiter Taranis) and the Roman altar from Chester, dated to 154 CE which also refers to Iovi Tanaro. The iconography associated with Taranis are the lightning bolt and the wheel, the latter being disputed by some scholars. There are of course, inscriptions of Taranis and also images of a god with a wheel, but never the two together. While the wheel is associated by the Romans with the thunder god, we must not assume that this applies to Taranis or that images of the bearded wheel god relate to Him. Some images of Iupiter do contain a wheel and it also appears with images of unnamed Celtic gods, so it is not a symbol specific to a particular deity.

Proto-Celtic God of Sovereignty and Many Skills

*Lugus: from this polymath deity we derive the Gaulish Lugus/Lugoves, the Irish Lugh and the Welsh Lleu. 

Lugh

Pronounced as 'loo', this is the Irish reflex of the Proto-Celtic *Lugus, pronounced as 'lugus'. The Welsh equivalent is Lleu, pronounced as 'hleh-ee' and is also derived from the Proto-Celtic *Lugus. *Lugus may be derived from either the PIE *leuk, meaning 'light, brightness' > 'the shining one' or *leugh, meaning 'to bind, swear an oath' > 'the oath god/binding god'. Which one of these PIE etymologies has the strongest claim? The answer to that question depends on whether you are a linguist or a mythologist. Linguists prefer the second option, *leugh because it fits the sound laws perfectly, it explains the Proto-Celtic *Lugus much better than the first option and it aligns with the sovereignty and oath-bindings of Lugh. Mythologists prefer the first option, *leuk because it fits the image of Lugh being a radiant, shining, solar deity.

The Gaulish reflex of *Lugus is also Lugus. He is not known from any iconography, only attested to in Roman inscriptions and in interpretatio Romana, where He is equated with the Roman Mercury, not Iupiter. Indirectly this equates Him with the Norse Odin. He is the god of skills, crafts, trade, travel, eloquence, trickery, magic, oaths, and contracts. Some of these aspects are also shared with Odin. The Irish Lugh shares many of the aforementioned attributes as evidenced in the Lebor Gabála Érenn ('The Book of the Taking of Ireland') where He is referred to as the 'master of all skills', those skills being smithing, warring, harp-playing, poetry, a knowledge of history, sorcery, healing, being a wright, and a champion.

In the Cath Maige Tuired ('The Battle of Mag Tuired') Lugh becomes both a king on a temporary basis and also a king-maker. This is clear evidence of His sovereign function. Lugh's primary weapon is the Sleá Lugh (the 'Spear of Lugh'), crafted by the smith god, Goibniu. The spear, as I have discussed in the first post in this series, is a weapon of Indo-European sovereignty, wielded first by *Tiwaz and then Odin. When awakened, Lugh's spear bursts into flames, roars like thunder and shines with a supernatural brightness; this is clearly a reflex of the Indo-European solar motif.

In the surviving Welsh mythology as contained in the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi and other Welsh mediaeval sources, Lleu, the Brythonic reflex of *Lugus, is depicted as a ritual-legal hero and an oath-bound sovereign. In the recorded myths, it is clear that Lleu embodies oath-magic, dynamic kingship and sky ascent (notably as an eagle, a solar figure).

Nuada (The Old Sacred King)

The sovereignty function is shared between the older god, Nuada, who represents the Old Sacred King, concerned with ritual kingship, the law, and purity. This is in contrast to Lugh, who represents The Young Victorious King, concerned with skill, charism, and battle-prowess. Split kingship is a pattern in Indo-European mythology, and we can see exactly the same thing in the division between the old Germanic Sky Father *Tiwaz and Odin. However, this shared position by Lugh and Nuada does not appear in Gaul, where Lugus maintains both parts of the role. Thus, in our schema, Lugh = Odin, Tyr = Nuada. This has already been recognised by scholars, and it is something which I will return to in a separate essay in the future. While scholars split the Sky Father function into two in the Germanic mythology with ease, I have stumbled upon this four way division among the Irish Celts. As of yet, I do not know if this has already been identified by scholars. 

In the Welsh mythology, Nudd is the equivalent of the Irish Nuada. He is associated with sovereignty, healing, brightness, and the Otherworld. Lleu Llaw Gyffes is the Welsh counterpart to Lugh. He too is multi-skilled, a heroic king, solar and associated with magic.

Nuada and Nudd derive from the same ancient Proto-Celtic root, *snowdo‑ / *snoudo- , 'mist, cloud, haze, brightness through mist', giving the meaning, 'He of the misty brightness' and 'The clouded one/the mist lord'. There is an alternative reconstruction, *Nowdos, meaning: 'The Possessor/The Acquirer/The Lord of Power'. Both Nuada and Nudd lead back to a hypothesised Proto-Celtic deity: *Nowdonos/*Snowdonos. Interestingly, the English name for Yr Wyddfa, Mount Snowdon, shares the same Proto-Celtic root and the same conceptional idea. I would like to elaborate further on this, but it will have to wait for a future post.

The Proto-Celtic All-Father

From the Proto-Celtic *Dagodagos, we derive the Irish The Dagda, which is the only linguistic reflex of the Proto-Celtic name, but there are other deities who share the same functions of The Dagda, such as the Gaulish Sucellus, the Welsh Brân the Blessed, Beli Mawr, Arawn, the Celticised Silvanus and Dispater. It should be stressed at this point that *Dagodagos is strictly speaking a title, not a personal name.

*Dagodagos ('the Great Good God') is the All-Father, the Cosmic Provider, a functional (but not linguistic) reflex of the PIE Sky Father, *Dyēus Ph₂tḗr. 

The Dagda

The Dagda corresponds to the Proto-Germanic *Tiwaz (greatly diminished to the NorseTýr and the Anglo-Saxon Tiw, the Vedic Dyaus Pitar, the Roman Iupiter and the Greek Zeus Pitar. The Dagda is the centre of the Irish pantheon, sharing aspects of the Sky Father function with Lugus and Torann. He is the chief of the gods, the protector of the tribe, the guarantor of abundance, the master of life, death and fertility, and the ruler of times and seasons.

The symbols of The Dagda include:

. The Club of Life and Death (Lorg Mór, 'great club').

. The Cauldron of Plenty (Coire Anseasc).

. The Harp Uiathne ('The Four-Angled Music').

. The Great Staff (sometimes distinct from the club).

. A large cloak (symbolising the land) and other agricultural symbols such as a bag of seed and a plough.

. The oak tree.

. A wheel (symbolising His solar aspects).

His club is a most interesting weapon, constructed of iron, too heavy for even eight men to lift and so large that it required wheels to transport it. The dragging of the club created deep ditches in the earth that subsequently formed the mythic boundary ditches of Ireland. It was a most lethal weapon; one end of  the club, the 'Death End' could kill nine men with a single blow, while the 'Life End' could restore the dead to life. The deadly aspect of this weapon brings to mind the continental Germanic Thunder God's club (Donarkeule, 'Donar's Club') which was mentioned in Saxo Grammaticus's gesta Danorum ('History of the Danes') as being made of iron, and also the Norse Thor's Hammer, likewise made of iron with deadly and life-giving qualities.

The Proto-Celtic Solar God

*Belenos/*Belinos is the Proto-Celtic solar god, his name meaning 'the Bright One, 'the Shining One', or 'the Radiant God'. The Proto-Celtic root of His name being *belo-/*belo-s-, meaning 'bright', 'shining', 'brilliant' , 'strong light'. This Proto-Celtic root derives from the PIE * bʰel‑ ('to shine', 'flash', 'burn', 'to be bright'). Thus *Belenos/*Belinos is linguistically related to the Slavic god, Belobog ('White/bright god'). His qualifications for the role of Sky Father are thus obvious purely from a linguistic point of view. He has the following attributes:

. Brightness.

. Daylight.

. Celestial radiance.

. Purity and moral order.

. Sovereignty.

Reflexes of *Belenos/*Belinos

. Belenos, the Gaulish and Pan-Celtic god, associated with cosmic order, sovereignty, solar radiance, healing, purification , seasonal renewal (Beltaine), and protection of cities. He was equated by the Romans with the Greek Apollo. 'The Gauls worship Belenus as Apollo'. (Tertullian, ad nationes, 197 CE). Archaeological evidence from Northern Italy, the Alps, and Pannonia in the form of inscriptions such as 'Beleno Apollini', and 'Apollini Beleno' again support this association.

. Belisama, a Gaulish goddess, associated with fire, light, craftsmanship, poetry, learning, sacred skills, intelligence, rivers and healing. She was equated by the Romans with the goddess, Minerva. Her name derives from the Proto-Celtic *Belisamā, meaning 'The Most Radiant Goddess'. It is more than likely that Belisama and the Gaulish Belenos were a divine pair with their origins reaching back to the Bronze Age. Linguistically and functionally they complement each other. She, like Belenos was also worshipped outside of Gaul.

. Beltaine, derived from the Proto-Celtic *belo‑tene ('bright fire'). This festival was, and still is celebrated halfway between the Autumn Equinox and the Summer Solstice, the 1st of May being the customary date. This marks the start of summer in the Celtic calendar.

The symbols associated with Belenos include the following:

. The solar disc. This primary symbol represents radiance, light, purity, and healing. It is often depected behind the head of a deity as a halo.

. The solar horse and chariot. This is imagery which is associated with Belenos through the Romans' equation of Him with Apollo.

. Fire, which is central to His cult.

. Healing plants and sacred springs. Again, this mirrors Apollo's role as a healing god.

. City walls and gateways. This is an expression of His role as a guardian.

. The wheel, which symbolises cosmic order, represents the movement of the sun and connects Him to His role as a sovereign god. This symbol was in common use during the Bronze Age onwards.

. The rooster, which in Romano-Celtic contexts is associated with solar deities, for it heralds the dawn and the overcoming of the darkness with light.

Beli Mawr

A Welsh reflex of *Belenos, the father of Arianrhod, Lludd Llaw Ereint, Llefelys, Afallach, Gwydion, Gwyn al Nudd, Govannon, Amaethon and many Welsh kings and heroes, and the husband of Dôn, the Welsh mother-goddess. His name translates as 'Beli the Great'. He is a pregenitor in many royal Welsh pedigrees, in the same way that Woden is for the Anglo-Saxons.

Bile

An Irish reflex of *Belenos, the Irish father of gods and kings, a divine progenitor in the same sense as Beli Mawr. He is also the father of Míl Espáine, the ancestor of the Gaels. He is associated with ancestry, sacred trees and Otherworld power. The literal meaning of His name is 'sacred tree, great tree, world-tree'. Bile is not described in the Irish narrative myths because He belongs to the mythical pre-history of Ireland, a very ancient deity.

Belatucadros

A deity worshipped in Cumberland, Westmorland and southern Scotland by both native Britons and Roman soldiers. There are approximately 28 altar inscriptions making reference to this deity along Hadrian's Wall. The etymology of His name must be considered in two parts: Belatu-, 'bright one', 'shining one' , and -cadros, 'slayer', 'warrior'.