Reflections on Yule Part Two-The Lie of Jesus's Existence

 Having established in my previous essay Reflections on Yule Part One-The Lie of Christmas (the Dating) that Jesus of Nazareth was not born on 25th December, I am now going to present my arguments for his non-existence in the historical record. Bear in mind that if he never existed then there could have been no birth, no death and no 'resurrection'!

When debating with Christians online regarding the existence of Jesus of Nazareth, I tend to encounter identical arguments, almost as if they have read the same instruction manual and quote the same 'evidence' parrot-fashion. The most annoying thing is that they assume that I have never researched the issue and then label me as 'arrogant' when I said that I have done so over many years and can find no evidence. When I ask them to provide me with some evidence they either do not reply or they say that 'there is more evidence for the existence of Jesus than Julius Caesar' (correctly pronounced as yulius kaiser). This of course is untrue but it is a falsehood that appears to be quite popular among unthinking and uncritical believers. There is an abundance of evidence to support the fact that Julius Caesar was a real and an historical figure. 

Unlike Jesus of Nazareth, Caesar was a writer, and his accounts on the Gallic wars he was involved in, are discussed in detail in his commentarii de bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), which in itself is primary and contemporaneous evidence of his existence. Caesar was an accomplished poet as a young man and his work was quoted by other Roman authors, although the poems themselves are now lost. We know the names of two of them: laudes Herculis (Praises of Hercules) and a verse tragedy, Oedipus. He was also mentioned in the letters and speeches of the Roman statesman, Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero) and the Roman historian and politician, Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus).

There is also numismatic evidence for his existence; Caesar was the very first living Roman politician to have his portrait placed upon coins, namely silver denarii, struck in 44 BCE. He commissioned the building of monuments bearing his name, the most famous example being the Forum Iulium, which contained the Temple of Venus Genetrix (templum Veneris Genetricis), which emphasises Caesar's claimed descent from the goddess. After Caesar's brutal murder he was cremated and his ashes placed in the Temple of Divus Iulius (Aedes Divi Iulii).

Now how does the evidence, if any for Jesus of Nazareth compare to that of the divine Julius? Unlike Caesar, Jesus left behind no writings of any kind. His purported sayings in the canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) are not first hand accounts and are alleged to have been authored between 65-100 CE. Given that Jesus is supposed to have been crucified between 30-33 CE, these gospel narratives cannot be said to be firsthand or primary accounts: they are secondary accounts and thus hearsay. Additionally, they are not secular accounts and thus not impartial. As such, the gospels would not stand up to scrutiny in a court of law!    

Not only did Jesus not leave behind any writings but his name does not appear in any contemporaneous historical records. Believers will seek to explain this lack due to him being 'not very well known' and yet according to the gospel accounts he created quite a stir in Jerusalem and Judah, and terrestrial and celestial phenomena were supposed to have occurred at the time of his death, and yet not a whimper was raised in the otherwise meticulous records of the Roman scribes! If he did exist then he clearly was not considered to be important enough to warrant just one mention in the records, which makes the gospel accounts to be a lie!

At this point the believer will object and say, 'surely he was mentioned by the Roman historian, Tacitus?' There are two problems with that: firstly Tacitus was not alive during the alleged lifetime of Jesus (Tacitus lived from 56 CE to 120 CE) and thus anything he has to say on the matter is pure hearsay and not primary and contemporaneous evidence, but also he does not refer to a Jesus of Nazareth but a 'Christus' in his Annals. Christians and other apologists for the historical Jesus narrative tend to present Tacitus's reference as their strongest piece of 'evidence'. To be fair to them I will quote the relevant passage in full:

                                Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt

                                and  inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for

                                their abominations, called Christians by the populace.

                                Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered

                                the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the

                                hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most

                                mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment,

                                again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil,

                                but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful

                                from every part of the world find their centre and become 

                               popular.' (Annals 15:44)  

What we need to focus on here first is the identity of the one called 'Christus', then everything else should become clear to my readers. It has been common knowledge among biblical scholars since 1902 that the term 'Christians' in the Annals is an alteration of 'Chrestians' in the earliest extant copy of the Annals in Florence. The letter 'i' had been clearly altered by a scribe from an 'e'. Is this a supposed later 'correction' of an earlier scribal error or a deliberate act of deception by a Christian scribe? Does the change of vowel make any difference? Before I answer this question I would like to turn to another Roman source which Christians point to as 'evidence' for their Jesus of Nazareth.

Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus), a Roman historian who lived from about 69 CE to after 122 CE refers to the expulsion of Jews from Rome by Claudius at sometime during the period 41-53 CE in his Lives of the Twelve Caesars (de vita Caesarum)  and refers to a 'Chresto'. The actual Latin text is as follows:

                             Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit.

My translation: He expelled the Jews from Rome who were constantly making disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.

The use of the term 'Chresto' by Suetonius accords with the term 'Chrestians' used by Tacitus to designate the followers of this man. It should be noted that 'Chresto' is the ablative case of 'Chrestus'. There is nothing in this quotation to suggest that 'Chrestus' equals Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth. Jerusalem at this time was a hotbed of preachers, healers, false 'messiahs' and other assorted crackpots and as Tacitus mentioned, alternative ideas, philosophies and religions all gravitated towards Rome, just as they did in California in the 1960s and 70s: nothing new here! If we take Suetonius literally, then how could 'Chrestus' instigate his followers to create disturbances decades after his alleged death?

What if any is the difference in meaning between 'Chrestus' and 'Christus'? 'Christus' is the Latin translation of the Greek 'Khristos', meaning 'anointed one' and its Latin form is very rare outside of Christian circles. By comparison, 'Chrestus' from the Greek 'Khrestos' simply has the meaning of 'good' and bears no equivalency with 'Christus'/'Khristos'. Interestingly, 'Chrestos' was quite a common name at that time (particularly of freed slaves) and could have been carried by any anti-Roman rabble-rouser! Just because the two names seem similar is not a good enough reason to suppose that they relate to the same man or that man is Jesus of Nazareth but this is the very week defence put forward by generally pro-Christian Bible scholars (who as academics should know better) and believers.

In the mystery religions of the ancient world the term 'Khrestos' was used for an initiate undergoing trials prior to achieving enlightenment. In pre-Christian gnostic sects, 'Khrestos' was the term given to a suffering disciple seeking purification prior to enlightenment, while 'Christus' signified the one who had achieved enlightenment or perfection, having successfully passed through all his trials. They are thus, degrees of initiation and were in usage long before the birth of Christianity. They do not therefore, have to point to an historical person.

Another popular source for believers are the writings of the Jewish historian and Roman general, Flavius Josephus (born Yosef ben Mattityahu) about 37 to 100 CE. As with Tacitus and Suetonius, Josephus wasn't even alive during the alleged lifetime of Jesus of Nazareth so anything that he has to say must be regarded as hearsay but he is the closest in time to the life of Jesus. There are two references to 'Jesus' in his Histories of the Jews (antiquitates Iudaicae), written in 94 CE in a passage now referred to as the testimonium Flavianum (the Testimony of Flavius). He is unequivocally referred to in Book XVIII, chapter 3. However, they are now believed to be later interpolations made by Christian scribes. According to Professor Paul Hopper, the use of Greek verbs forms are distinctly different in the 'Jesus' passages compared to the rest of the text and that the passage is 'close in style and content to the creeds that were composed two to three centuries after Josephus.' The professor's conclusion was that 'the entire passage is interpolated.' (See 'A Narrative Anomaly in Josephus: Jewish Antiquities xviii: 63', 2014). So much for Josephus and the less said about that, the better!

What has Pliny the Younger (Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, 61-about 113 CE) to say about Jesus of Nazareth? Strictly speaking, NOTHING. He does, however refer to the Christian sect and their god, Christ in his letter to Trajan, written around the year 112 CE. By equating Christ with a god who is worshipped is evidence of a rapidly developing theology but in itself is not evidence for an historical Jesus. Like the other classical writers, Pliny the Younger is not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the alleged Jesus. 

                                  they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before

                                 dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as a 

                                 god, (Letter to Trajan) 

All of the abovementioned writers represent the 'key' secular sources for the evidence in favour of an historical Jesus, and not a single one of the writers were alive during the alleged lifetime of 'Jesus of Nazareth'. How strange also that writers who were alive during his alleged lifetime such as Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus), 23/24-79 CE), Seneca the Younger (Lucius Anaeus Seneca), 4 BCE-65 CE and Philo of Alexandra (Philo Judaeus), about 20 BCE-about 50 CE never wrote a single jot about him!

Reflections on Yule Part One-The Lie of Christmas (the Dating)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stele_Sol_Invictus_Terme.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Stele_Sol_Invictus_Terme.jpg

Baths of Diocletian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 

This series of essays originated as a reaction to the recent and sudden emergence of 'Christian Nationalism' in the United Kingdom, which is yet another unwanted and unasked for import from that loony bin of religious nutters, the United States. 'Tommy Robinson's' recent public promotion of Christianity is causing a third nationalist force or movement to arise in this country: 'Christian Nationalism', which as I have argued in my earlier essay, The Dangers of 'Christian Nationalism' Arising in the United Kingdom is a relatively new nationalist movement and 'Robinson' is one of its key architects. The other two nationalist movements being Civic Nationalism and Ethnic Nationalism or Ethno-nationalism.

'Christian Nationalism' is not only a nationalist movement in its own right but has the potential to unite the other two factions, Ethnic Nationalism and Civic Nationalism. If this is allowed to happen then it would exert a powerful influence upon any future government of a 'nationalist' sentiment, such as a potential government led by Reform Uk Ltd. We have seen how 'Christian Nationalism' has, during Trump's two terms in office, exerted an influence upon policies flowing from the 'Oval Office'. If this were to happen in this country, one can envisage how 'Christian Nationalism' may quickly shed its snakeskin and transform into a fully ledged 'Christofascist' movement. Once given temporal power, the Church, as in the past, misuses this power for its own ends. In such a society, anyone with diverging political and religious views may face a certain amount of persecution.  

Having established my reason for starting this series of essays, I must now move on to discuss how the Church gradually transformed the ancient pre-Christian feast of Yule by superimposing an artificial Christian veneer. Let us start with the date of 'Christmas', 25th December. As anyone who has ever read the gospel accounts in the New Testament can affirm, there is no evidence in those accounts of the 'birth' of 'Jesus' to substantiate such a date, and to be fair, the vast majority of Christians, both real and imaginary ('Christian Nationalists') would readily agree with that. So what is the significance, if any, of that date? Quite simply, in the Roman Empire, the 25th December was commemorated as the day of the 'birth of the sun', being the winter solstice in the Roman calendar. The calendar of Antiochus of Athens, a notable Greek astrologer, who lived between the late first and the mid second century CE marks that date as the 'birthday of the Sun'. From 274 CE, the Roman festival of dies natalis Solis Invictus (the day of birth of the invincible sun) was held on 25th December. Please note that Latin words should never be capitalised, even at the beginning of a sentence, the only exception being that of proper nouns, and Sol Invictus is a proper noun. The emperor, Aurelian (Lucius Domitius Aurelianus), c. 214-275 CE, revived the cult of the sun god, and raised Sol Invictus to being the primary god of the empire.

Now the question may be asked, did the tradition of celebrating Christ's 'birthday' precede the dating of dies natalis Solis Invictus? There is no evidence that it did: the earliest evidence for the dating of the 'birthday' of 'Jesus' is the Filocalian Calendar, produced in 354 CE for a wealthy Roman citizen, Valentinus by Furius Dionysius Filocalus, an illustrator, mapmaker, scribe and stone engraver, who became the official engraver of Pope Damasus (304-384 CE). Of course, one may legitimately argue that 'lack of evidence is not evidence of absence' and they would be perfectly correct, but as the primary texts of Christianity, namely the gospels, do not specify a date, and given that the winter solstice was already an established festival in Europe, known in the Germanic lands as Yule, then it would be equally legitimate to argue that this date was chosen by the Church in order to provide a Christian veneer to a clearly pagan festival. The symbolism of the birth of the infant sun and its growing light in a dark world would not have been lost on the likes of Augustine in the fourth century CE, who commented on this in his sermons. Conveniently for the Church, the winter solstice festival is a nice and neat nine months from the date of the spring equinox in the Roman calendar, 25th March and known as the 'Annunciation', the conception of the Christ child by the 'virgin' Mary.   

Islam, an Abrahamic religion which also acknowledges 'Jesus' as a prophet, contends that his birth occurred sometime between June and October, giving plenty of scope for the Jesus freaks to make their argument that he could have been born in any of one of six months: plenty to choose from! Of all the various Christian sects, only the Jehovah's Witnesses have, in my opinion, the correct view. They view 'Christmas' as a later addition by the Church, pointing out that the earliest Christians did not celebrate his birth and that the concept originated in the fourth century CE, using the Roman feast of Saturnalia as its template. The feast of Saturnalia, as the name suggests, was held in honour of the Roman god, Saturn. It was celebrated on 17th December according to the Julian calendar. The Julian calendar was a solar one, proposed by Gaius Julius Caesar in 46 BCE, replacing an earlier lunisolar one. This remained the predominant calendar in the western hemisphere until the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 CE.  The Jehovah's Witnesses argue that as the shepherds would have been unlikely to be out in the fields in December, they propose that early October would have been a more logical time.

Sol Invictus is not the only god to be 'born' on 25th December: he is accompanied by a host of other deities who share the same birthday: Horus, Osiris, Attis, Zoroaster, Heracles, Mithra, Krishna, the Buddha, Tammuz, Adonis, Bacchus, Hermes, Prometheus and Dionysus. My sincerest apologies to any deities whom I may have inadvertently omitted to mention! 

The Dangers of 'Christian Nationalism' Arising in the United Kingdom

 My readers will note that I have placed 'Christian Nationalism' in inverted commas, the simple reason being is that this ideology is an oxymoron, a contradiction in terms, as anyone familiar with the New Testament knows:

                              "There is neither Jew, nor Greek, there is neither bond, nor free,

                                there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ

                                Jesus." (Galatians 3:28, KJV)     

The aforementioned quotation is an echo of sorts of the words of the fictional and mythological construct, 'Jesus':

                                "But he willing to justify himself, said unto Jesus, And who 

                                 is my neighbour?" (Luke 10: 29, KJV)       

                                

After relating the parable of the 'Good Samaritan', 'Jesus' made it clear to the man that all whom he encounters should be viewed as his 'neighbour'. This thinking is at sharp contrast with those who espouse the nonsensical ideology of 'Christian Nationalism', which like all bad ideas is an import from the United States. As an aside, my late mother, a practising spiritualist predicted the rise of 'Christian Nationalism' and its spread from the United States to the United Kingdom. Bearing in mind that she died in 1989, this is an incredible prediction which has since come true.

In recent months, I have seen the rise of new channels and old channels on Youtube dedicated to spreading 'Christian Nationalist' propaganda, always without exception, linked to anti-Islamic sentiment and mass immigration. There is nothing particularly new in this as this drivel began to be spouted by the British National Party in the early 2,000s. Realising that directly attacking mass immigration on racial grounds was legally problematic and not conducive to electoral support, they swiftly began to take up the banner of 'Christian Nationalism', although they did not, as far as I remember, use that expression. They attacked Islam while hiding behind the banner of a fake Christianity. With the demise of the BNP, this strategy was taken up by the Britain First Party, who would often parade on the streets behind a large wooden cross. There is nothing remotely 'Christian' about the politics of these two parties. As we have seen, this became a failed strategy at the time and helped neither party electorally.

With the rise of Reform UK Ltd and its little sister, Advance UK, and bearing in mind the rising popularity of both organisations, it seems pertinent to me to examine their stated stance on the issue of Christianity and its relationship to the United Kingdom. I shall start with Advance UK first as their statement is unambiguous:

                                         "The Party promotes and celebrates the Nation's

                                           Christian constitution, roots, traditions, culture,

                                           and values."  (https://www.advanceuk.org.uk/mission 

                                           accessed on 12/11/25).

Note the use of the verb 'promote'! Interestingly, its current leader is a businessman, Benyamin Naeem Habib, a British citizen of Pakistani Muslim heritage. I am not sure what the relevance of Advance UK is apart from its potential to split the Reform UK Ltd vote! 

The real worry comes from Reform UK Ltd. Very wisely, they have decided not to mention their stance on Christianity in any of their policy documents ( Reform UK Policy Documents ). Therefore, in order to ascertain their position on the subject of religion, we must delve far deeper. One Reform councillor has reportedly told Northumberland County Council 'that children should only be taught Christianity in Religious Education because exposure to other religions might 'brainwash' them.' (Quote taken from the website of Humanists UK https://humanists.uk/2025/09/17/reform-councillor-demands-christian-only-re-to-end-brainwashing/ See also the story reported online in the Northumberland Gazette: https://www.northumberlandgazette.co.uk/news/politics/council/reform-councillor-in-northumberland-claims-studying-non-christian-religion-could-brainwash-children-5317274

Of course this is only one councillor and does not necessarily reflect the official views of the party to which he belongs. One Reform UK Ltd parliamentary candidate acknowledged on Premier Plus radio that 'many Reform supporters see the party as aligned with Christian principles.' ( https://www.premier.plus/inspirational-breakfast-with-esther-higham/audio-series/clips/audio-items/is-reform-uk-representing-christian-values )

I am not aware that Nigel Farage, the leader of Reform UK Ltd has made any overt statements on the subject of religion but he has not entirely ignored the subject either. Declaring at a speech in Blackpool in 2024, he reportedly said that 'Judeo-Christian values' are at the root of everything in 'Britain.' Speaking at the Alliance for Responsible Citizenship this year he reportedly stated: "We've kind of forgotten that what underpins everything is our Judeo-Christian culture and that's where we need to start ." ( https://www.issacharpeople.org/Articles/715854/How_Christian_is.aspx ) It should be remembered that the Chairman of Reform UK Ltd, Zia Yusuf is himself a Muslim. The influence of affluent Muslims in both Advance UK and Reform UK Ltd causes me to question how deep these supposedly 'Christian' sentiments go. To me it sounds like political opportunism, playing to a particular demographic but in politics perception is everything  and there is an increasing perception that the policies of that party align with the hopes and aspirations of Christian voters.

Another rising star to watch is the new leader of the 'one trick pony' UKIP, Nick Marcel Tenconi who is also the Chief Operating Officer of the right-wing Turning Point UK which in itself is an offshoot of Turning Point USA, a conservative students pressure group which advocates capitalism and reactionary politics. According to the website novaramedia.com Tenconi describes himself as a 'Defender of masculinity, Christianity and conservative values.'

One rather unusual character who is starting to make waves in the 'Christian Nationalist' movement is self-styled 'Bishop' Ceirion Dewar, age 49. I can find no public record of his ordination as a priest or his consecration as a bishop in the Anglican church. It is thus unclear as to how and from whom he derives his consecration but he is not recognised by the Church of England.  He is, however, listed on the 'Confessing Anglican Church' website. See https://confessinganglican.church/cac-bishop-cei-dewar-leads-prayer-at-uk-rally/ What is particularly important here is the fact that he opened the 'Tommy Robinson' 'Unite the Kingdom' rally. Mr Dewar does not identify himself as a 'Christian Nationalist' but he is certainly associated with people who are.

 Unlike the United States, up until now, religion has never been an element in British politics but is this about to change? Anti-Islamist campaigner, 'Tommy Robinson', who is an Irish and British citizen of Irish parentage appears to have recently jumped onto the 'Christian Nationalist' bandwagon, whose 'Unite the Kingdom' march in September was marked by his supporters wearing crusader outfits, carrying life-size crosses, banners with biblical verses and Union flags featuring a crucified Jesus. Mixed in with all this fake religiosity were the usual anti-Islam and anti-Starmer pejoratives. Knuckle-dragging civic nationalism has now been given a fake Christian veneer. Last month he went on a much publicised pilgrimage to the 'holy land'. 'Robinson's support for Zionism is a matter of public record and the number of times that he has declared himself a Zionist are too many to mention in this short article. Now he appears to be combining this new found 'love of da lord' with his active support for Israel, his opposition to Islam and making connections between various nationalist groups across Europe. Indeed, he has only just returned from Poland after attending nationalist events to mark Polish Independence Day.

The demographic which all of the aforementioned parties and movements draw active and/or vocal support from (according to my interactions with them) appear to be poorly educated, working class (blue collar worker), middle aged, white men who have an inborn prejudice against the 'other' and a resentment towards all organs of the state, id est the government, (sometimes) the royal family, the police, the judiciary, local authorities and the civil service, with the exception of the military which they appear to unthinkingly worship and whom they regard as being beyond criticism or judicial accountability. This reflects a militaristic attitude among many native English members of the aforesaid demographic. Due to the lack of critical thinking skills and poor education of much of this demographic, they are ripe for reactionary indoctrination.

If this is an indicator of the rise of militant Christianity in the United Kingdom then this is not good news for anyone who resists that religion, regardless of whether they be a humanist, a member of a different Abrahamic religion, a less illiberal form of Christianity or a heathen such as myself. There may be a spiritual thirst among the less cynical English people but that thirst cannot be quenched by an intolerant and alien religion, imposed upon our ancestors by force and deceit and maintained that way for centuries. In summing up, a resurgent and militant Christianity should be as much of a concern to us as militant Islamism!

The Goseck Circle

 There is a surprising amount of ignorance regarding aspects of the Neolithic and Bronze Age material and spiritual cultures of the German-speaking lands in the Anglophone world. I believe that this is largely due to a lack of  knowledge of the German tongue in these lands: most of the relevant literature is only or mainly available in German rather than English.

There is a thematic connection between this article and my previous one The Nebra Sky Disc-Unetice Culture Part 1  : I would encourage my readers to also read that article. The Goseck Circle predates the Nebra Sky Disc by more than 3,300 years, rooting it firmly in the Neolithic culture of central Europe, not the Unetice culture, which belongs to the central European Bronze Age. However, the distance between these two sites (Nebra and Goseck) is only 25 miles and both are situated in the modern German Land (state) of Sachsen-Anhalt.

Constructed around 4,900 BCE, the circle remained in use until 4,700 BCE, making this the oldest known circle in Europe, older than the first phase of Stonehenge by 1,800 years! I would ask the question, how many people in the United Kingdom or other parts of the English-speaking world are aware of that fact? This is one of the reasons why I started this blog and my previous ones 19 years ago, to bring to light that which is hidden. I have been described by one person as a 'spiritual archaeologist' and this term fits my role exactly!

The Goseck circle was discovered in 1991 due to the result of an aerial field survey. This resulted in a major excavation of the site between 2002 and 2005. Following the reconstruction of the wooden palisade, it was opened to the general public in December of 2005. 1,675 oak poles were shaped using hand tools, measuring 8.2 ft in height for each one.

Unlike the better known circles or henges, Goseck was not constructed of stone but of two wooden palisade rings which contain entrances in alignment with the sunrise and sunset of the winter solstice. The southeast gate is aligned with the winter solstice sunrise, the southwest gate with the winter solstice sunset and there is a third gate which points to the true north. Surrounding these wooden palisades was a ditch with the following dimensions: 82 yards in diameter, 2.2 to 3.3 yards in width and a depth of 1.6 to 2.2 yards. It is clear from the dimensions of the ditch that it was ritualistic, not defensive in nature.

It is interesting that while Stonhenge focuses on the summer solstice, the Goseck circle's main focus is that of the winter solstice. However, there are two narrower entrances located between the main gates which are aligned with the summer solstice and these are far less prominent architecturally. Location of the narrower entrances: one between the southeast and northern gates, aligned to the summer solstice sunrise, and one between the southwest and northern gates, aligned to the summer solstice sunset. The two narrower gates appear to have been constructed during the initial building phase. While this neolithic solar observatory marks both solstices, it is interesting why there should be an emphasis on the winter solstice.

The age of the circle as revealed through radiocarbon dating establishes the 4,900 BCE date of the site's construction while the style of the pottery shards establish a presumed last use date of 4,700 BCE. The pottery was the product of the Stroke-ornmented ware culture which flourished between 4,900 to 4,400 BCE or the Danubian Ib culture of V. Gordon Childe which marked the beginning of agrarian society in central Europe. The fact that this was a settled agricultural community explains the emphasis on the winter rather than on the summer solstice. The knowledge of the dating of the winter solstice was a crucial element in the planning of the agricultural cycle. Connected to this scientific knowledge was the religious symbolism of the rebirth of the sun and the rituals associated with that. Winters in that part of the world would have been quite harsh, and thus the expectation of the return of the sun would have held much greater significance spiritually and psychologically than in southern Europe.

There is no evidence of permanent human habitation at the site but human remains have been found there, such as a headless skeleton buried near the southeastern gate, which aligns with the winter solstice sunrise and thus of ritual significance. Other human bones have been found within pits, buried within the circular ditch system. Bovine skulls, dog skulls, goat horns and other animal bones have been found along with multiple burn marks and fire pits, all suggestive of ritual sacrifice. Solar worship was obviously a key element of the Goseck Circle.

It would appear that the abandonment of the Goseck Circle coincided with a transitional phase in neolithic culture, the replacement of the Linear Pottery culture with the Stroke-ornamented ware culture. Whether this change in pottery style was indicative of migration and population replacement, I cannot determine. With a change in material culture there is often a change in that of ritual and belief but it would appear than any such change had been gradual at Goseck and that their beliefs as a continuous population simply evolved.

As with the Nebra Sky Disc, the Goseck Circle is evidence of an advanced central European solar knowledge, and with that knowledge, it is inconceivable to me that there was not a priesthood to safeguard and transmit it!

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Goseck_Circle_1.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Goseck_Circle_1.jpg

Kenny Arne Lang Antonsen, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

[[File:Goseck Circle 1.jpg|thumb|512px|alt=Goseck Circle, Germany, 4900 BC|Goseck Circle, Germany, 4900 BC. Photo by Kenny Arne Lang Antonsen, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons]]

The Nebra Sky Disc-Unetice Culture Part 1

 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nebra_disc_1.jpg  

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg 

Frank Vincentz, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

[[File:Nebra disc 1.jpg|thumb|512px|alt=Nebra Sky Disk|Nebra Sky Disk. Photo by Frank Vincentz, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons]]

The Nebra Sky Disc or to give it its German name, die Himmelscheibe von Nebra was discovered by two treasure hunters, equipped with a metal detector in 1999 near the town of Nebra in Sachsen-Anhalt (Saxony-Anhalt) in Germany. Although their actions were judged to be illegal we must be grateful for their discovery which unearthed some incredible finds. The discovery came to light in 2002 due to a police operation when the treasure had for the second time been placed on the black market. The find led qualified state archaeologists to start their own dig. It is unfortunate that the treasure hunters damaged part of the disc with a spade and destroyed parts of the site. The find was part of a prehistoric site, enclosing an 827ft high  hill called the Mittelberg. Also unearthed at the site were the remains of two bronze axes, two bronze swords a bronze chisel and fragments of bronze armbands.

 Radiocarbon dating of the sword hilts gives a date of 1600-1560 BCE for the hoard. Likewise, an analysis of the corrosion and metal radioactivity on the disc support this date range. X-ray fluorescence indicates that the copper in the bronze originated from Bischofshofen in Austria; the tin and gold originated from Cornwall. This demonstrates that there were extensive trade links between this area of Germany with Austria and England over 3,500 years ago.

The disc measures approximately 32cm in diameter and weighs 4.9lb. The blue-green patina on the bronze disc is thought to have been created by the smearing of rotten eggs. The colour represents the night-sky and helps to contrast with the gold symbols on the surface of the disc. The symbols contained on the disc include a depiction of the sun, a lunar crescent, stars and two arcs (there were originally three). The stars which are symbolised by 32 gold dots include a cluster of seven stars which are believed to represent the Pleiades. The gold used to make the arcs appears to come from a different source and these symbols are considered to be a later addition.

Around the edge of the disc were originally 38 to 40 holes punched. Researcher, Howard Crowhurst speculates in his book, The Nebra Sky Disc. Cycles in the Cosmos (second edition, 2023) that the actual number is 39. Scientists cannot say with any certainty whether the number is 38, 39 or 40 due to some damage to the edge of the disc. Mr Crowhurst advances several reasons as to why he believes the number to be 39, based on his knowledge of geometry and archaeoastronomy, citing examples from the Mayan calendar and the cycles of the Moon, Mars and Venus as well as the human gestation period. I recommend that my readers purchase a copy of his book. It contains only 76 pages but it is vital reading if you are interested in finding out about the disc. Be aware that it contains a lot of geometry which I found quite difficult to follow: several readings of the book would be necessary for most people to fully understand and consolidate all the information.

Originally, there were two arcs on the left and right sides of the disc but only the right side one has survived. The two arcs have an angle span of 82 deg which show the angle between the positions of the two solstices from the line of latitude of the Mittelberg. This demonstrates to me that the disc was an integral part of the archaeological culture of that area for it has been clearly calibrated for this specific region. 

Mr Crowhurst speculates that the 39 3mm diameter punched holes on the edge of the disc were intended for the insertion of small pegs for the purpose of keeping track of the cycles, making this disc a very practical tool for calculating and synchronising the solar and lunar calendars. In other words, this is a portable version of the likes of megalithic structures such as Stonehenge and Carnac. The science appears to be the same. This is surely evidence for a professional priesthood in the early European Bronze Age?

The god arc at the bottom of the disc is more problematic when it comes to interpreting its symbolism and practical function. Like the other two arcs it is known that this was a later addition to the ensemble of symbols. One rule of thought is that the arc represents the solar boat which is a feature of Indo-European mythology and symbolism found in Latvian, Greek and Hindu mythology and on many Scandinavian petroglyphs (see Chariot of the Sun and Other Rites and Symbols of the Northern Bronze Age by Peter Gelling and Hilda Ellis Davidson, 1969). The archaeologist, Mary Cahill (2015) draws a link between solar boat symbolism and the gold lunulae of the Bell Beaker culture. The subject of solar boat symbolism deserves an article specifically devoted to it which I intend to pen in the not too distant future.

The Nebra site is 25 miles northeast from the Goseck neolithic circle (also in Sachsen-Anhalt) which dates back to 4900BCE. I will discuss this circle in a future article. The disc is part of the Aunjetitz or Unetice culture which is of particular interest to me personally, being genetically related to three burials from this culture at Leubingen, Thueringen (Thuringia) from 1950BCE, two male and one female. Again, I may discuss these burials in a future article.

Hagalaz and the Chaos of this Age

 My inspiration for writing this article stems from my meditation on the Hagalaz rune of the Elder or Common Germanic FUTHARK, a rune that held a great deal of personal significance for me in the late 1990s. This rune also appears in the Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Frisian FUTHORC as Haegl and in the Younger FUTHARK as Hagall. Guido von List included this rune in his own Armanen FUTHARKH as Hagal.

The shape of the rune stave differs significantly across the aforementioned rune rows. The Elder and Anglo-Saxon versions resemble a letter H and have that letter as the initial sound in the rune name. The latter version features a double rather than a single-barred cross bar. The Younger and Armanen versions, however resemble the Iar rune stave of the Anglo-Saxon FUTHARK. It should be noted that Hagalaz or more accurately *Hagalaz is a reconstructed Proto-Germanic term in contrast to Haegl and Hagall.

The general accepted meaning of Hagalaz in all three rune poems is hail which symbolises destruction, chaos and change. Usually this destruction is swift and devastating. This interpretation can be seen very clearly in the various rune poems:

Old English Rune Poem

Hail is the whitest of grain; it is whirled from the vault of heaven and is tossed about by gusts of wind and then it melts into water.

Norwegian Rune Poem

Hail is the coldest of grain; Christ created the world the world of old.

Icelandic Rune Poem

Hail = cold grain and shower of sleet and sickness of serpents.

Swedish Rune Poem

Hail best in home.

 I believe that the rune or runic influence which governs this age is Hagalaz. The last vestiges of the old word order are now perishing, a process which began in the Industrial Reveolution and gained pace in the aftermath of WWI and WWII. Here in recent years in the United Kingdom we have witnessed huge, rather than gradual swings of support between the two main parliamentary parties, the Labour and Conservative parties, and now we are witnessing the emergence of a third political force in the form of political populism with the Reform UK Ltd company!

 Unfortunately, events have shown that the electorate, specifically in England, lack a general education in politics and are unable to understand the rudiments of how the United Kingdom is governed and the different functions of the various organs of state. The primary consequence of this general ignorance is the easy manipulation of the vast majority of voters, most of whom would not have been qualified to vote until the 19th century. To extend the electoral franchise to all and sundry is based upon the erroneous assumption that all men (and women) are of a minimum level of intelligence and education, which is clearly not the case. Mother Nature does not recognise the concept of 'equality' or the 'brotherhood of man': these are modern liberal man-made concepts which are not based in reality.

In the 18th century the franchise was only applicable to men who owned land worth a minimum of 40 shillings. All this changed in 1832 with the passing of the Representation of the People Act which extended the franchise to any man who paid an annual rental of £10 or more. The 1867 Representation of the People Act extended the franchise to men over the age of 21 who lived in the urban towns and cities provided that they met the property requirements. The impetus behind this act was to appease the growing demands for political representation by the urban working class. More single member borough seats were created in urban centres, allowing more men to vote, not just residents in rural areas. These new seats were Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool in County Durham, Middlebrough in the North Riding, Dewsbury in the West Riding, Burnley in Lancashire, Wednesbury in Staffordshire, Stalybridge in Cheshire and Gravesend in Kent. The 1884 Representation of the People Act extended the franchise further as well as introducing other changes. Employees who were not tenants but lived in property provided to them for their sole use by their employers could now vote also.

The Industrial Revolution had created new urban areas which people flocked to from the rural towns and villages for work, consequently placing a huge demand for accommadation which was quickly built to a poor standard. These new populations were cut off from their organic rural roots and so crime, poor health and living standards and degenerate living ensued. A people divorced from their roots become aimless, atomised cogs in a wheel with no sense of identity. The origins of today's society has its beginnings in the Industrial Revolution which has done more harm than good for the broad masses of people.  

The horrors of WWI placed further demands upon the establishment to extend the franchise even further. Parliament, terrified by the prospect of revolution spreading to the United Kingdom, and having seen the downfall of the German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian royal dynasties, introduced the 1918 Representation of the People Act which extended the franchise to ALL men over the age of 21, regardless of whether they owned or rented property or land, and to woman over the age of 30 who resided in property with a rental value of at least £5. Voting in local government elections was also granted to women over the age of 30 on the same grounds as men. Finally, in 1928 the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act extended the franchise to all men and women over the age of 21 and there were no minimum property qualifications. The Representation of the People Act, 1969 lowered the voting age to just 18. In summer of this year, the government announced its intention to reduce the voting age even further to a mere 16. Between 2013 and 2015 the voting age in Scotland was reduced to age 16 for various types of elections but obviously not for the general election as this covers the entire United Kingdom and the voting age remains at 18 for the time being for this type of election.

There has been a general presumption, frequently stated, that political literacy has greatly increased over the last 100 years or so due to mass compulsory education but I beg to differ. In my encounters with the general public I have found very little political literacy but a great deal of ignorance, both of a political and non-political kind. It is of course very easy to blame the educational system but in reality it is the quality of the human raw material which is to blame. In my 65 years I have found that the great mass of the native English population seem lacking somehow. The cause of this, in my opinion, is to be found in the Norman Conquest of 1066 when England's elite were exterminated (with a few exceptions) and the English population were bred for serfdom, a state of affairs which has continued until the aftermath of WWII and the emergence of the counter-culture of the late 1960s and early 1970s. From this point onwards a significant part of the educated population began to wake up to the horrors of war and the evils of capitalism.

Over the last couple of years, due to the ongoing war between the Ukraine (the 'west's' proxy) and the Russian Federation, the subject of conscription has periodically reared its ugly head. The establishment has from time to time tested the barometer of public opinion by the leaking of information and careless remarks made by generals and intelligence service chiefs (both of whom should in theory and practice be politically impartial) and then subsequently denied by ministers when the barometer readings do not meet with their jingoistic expectations. The days when young men could be expected to risk life and limb for the military-industrial complex without complaint and resistance are over. 

Since the summer of 2024, the United Kingdom, most especially England has witnessed mass demonstrations and even riots in protest against illegal and mass immigration. Ordinary people, frustrated by the establishment's refusal to listen to, acknowledge and act upon their legitimate concerns and fears have turned to extra-parliamentary means to vent their anger. Unfortunately, these people lack legitimate and respectable spokesmen and leaders. Many people are using various forms of social media to voice their frustrations but more often than not their comments are inarticulate and uneducated, descending into what is in reality 'hate speech'. Inciting others to commit acts of violence and to engage in treasonous acts (violent removal of government, military coups and political assassinations) are both illegal and reprehensible, and such people rightly deserve to be punished.

The discontented masses know what they are against but not what they are for; they have no concrete goals and lack any kind of ideology beyond hate. Such a directionless and leaderless body of angry people will accomplish nothing except play into the hands of the establishment who will simply double down on their efforts to silence and criminalise dissent. The pitchfork-wielding insensate mob is a danger to the good and the bad, and  most of all to themselves. Destruction and chaos are the end result of their efforts. They are the very epitome of the actions and meaning of Hagalaz.

Ultimately, out of chaos and disorder a new order of being has its birth but all I can see at the moment is the destructive elemental force of Hagalaz, not a new beginning.

  

Brigantia, the Tutelary Deity of the Brigantes

 As many of my readers will be aware, the tribe known as the Brigantes was a major Britonnic tribal confederation located in the northern part of England, between the rivers Tyne and Humber, which corresponds to the ancient Anglian kingdom of Northumbria. The Brigantes were also resident in Ireland in the modern counties of Wexford, Waterford and Kilkenny, and on the continent in the Alps. Their capital in England was named Isurium Brigantum (modern day Aldborough, near Boroughbridge in the old West Riding part of present day 'North Yorkshire'). Isurium is taken from the Latin name for the River Ure, the Iseur.

The Devil's Arrows standing stones are located on the outskirts of Boroughbridge. This is one of the many places I lived at with my parents as a boy but my birth town is Darlington, County Durham, which is on the Durham bank of the river Tees, a border town between Durham and Yorkshire. As an aside, I have genetic evidence of being descended from the Brigantes and I have always had a strong affinity with the Devil's Arrows stones.

The name Brigantes shares the same Proto-Celtic root as the goddess, known as Brigantia, meaning 'high, elevated'. This may refer to physical human height, topographical height or metaphorical height. The Germanic Burgundi share a related term and both probably relate back to the Proto-Indo-European *bhergh.

Famously or infamously, the Brigantes were known to be allies of Rome. The defeated anti-Roman resistance leader, Caratacus, the chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, was betrayed to the Romans by Cartimandua, the queen of the Brigantes in 51 CE. This heinous act of betrayal strengthened her influence with the Romans. Her degenerate moral character was further demonstrated by the divorcing of her rightful husband, Venutius and her taking of his armour bearer, Vellocatus to be her consort. Despite attempts by Venutius in waging war against her, the Romans defended their client queen with military support, keeping her in power.

It is not known whether the goddess Brigantia was named after the Brigantes, or the Brigantes named after Brigantia. There is evidence for the cult of Brigantia in Gaul, Britain and possibly in Ireland (Brigid). The Romans identified Brigantia with their own goddess, Minerva, who was likewise a goddess associated with warfare and also with Victoria, the divine personification of victory. 

John Moss, writing in his The Celtic Tribes. Origins, Ancestry and the Warrior Class, 2024 hypothesises that she is the same deity as the goddess, Britannia but offers no explanation for his theory. I am not convinced that they are one and the same beyond a slight similarity with their names and the fact that they are both tutelary deities. Britannia is purely a divine personification of the British Isles and may be linked to the Hitto-Phoenician goddess Barat or Brihat who features on Lycaonian and Carthaginian coins, according to Professor L.A. Waddell in his Phoenician Origins of Britons, Scots and Anglo-Saxons Discovered by Phoenician and Sumerian Coins, 1924. See: Britannia, Aryan Tutelary Goddess of the British Isles

A bronze statue in fragments, dating back to the first century CE and housed in the Museum of Britanny is believed to depict Brigantia in her Roman aspect of Minerva. A head and shoulders image is shown below, and one can see the superficial resemblance to Britannia as depicted on pre-decimal British coins.

Museum of Brittany, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BrigitteCelt.jpg

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/BrigitteCelt.jpg

Below is an image of a pre-decimal British penny, which ceased to be legal tender on 1 September 1971. The last pennies for general circulation were minted in 1967, although souvenir pennies were also struck in 1970. One can see the image of Britannia on the reverse of the penny.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_pre-decimal_penny_1967_reverse.png

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/British_pre-decimal_penny_1967_reverse.png

Scan: Retroplum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 

Wotans Krieger's Code of Aryan Ethics

Edmund Leighton, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leighton-God_Speed!.jpg

 This code, which I have lived by since the age of at least 7 has served me well and I have not included any points which I have not personally adhered to as to do otherwise would be an act of hypocrisy, an unAryan trait.

Do not hate a man because of his race, ethnicity or nationality.

Judge the value of a man solely by his actions.

Do all in your power to preserve the racial integrity of your bloodline.

It is better for one's bloodline to die out than that it should be compromised.

Fulfil all oaths to gods and men.

To break an oath is an act of the greatest dishonour but do not be bound by oaths to men who have first broken their oath to you. Even if it is to your own personal cost or disadvantage, never break an oath!

Do not dishonour your gods in word or deed.

The gods will hold you to account for any dishonourable words or deeds towards them.

Be gracious in defeat and merciful in victory.

Be prepared to offer the hand of friendship to a defeated enemy.

Be prepared to defend your honour by word or deed.

Ultimately satisfaction may be required by fighting a duel.

Defend the weak against tyranny and injustice.

Speak out and act against all wrong doing.

Honour the land and remember that you do not own it: it owns you.

Treat the earth with reverence for She is our Mother.

Do not pollute land, sea or sky.

Just as the earth is our Mother, the sky is our Father.

Respect all wildlife and vegetation.

Life forms that are different from us are still sacred and the gods will hold us to account for our misuse of animal, vegetable or mineral.

Honour our sacred sites, whether megalith, sacred oak, mound, hill, well or grove.

By doing so we maintain a connection to our ancestors and their memory.

Defend your land but do not participate in an unjust war.

Judge the merits of a conflict before risking life and limb and remember that most wars are initiated to maintain or extend the interests of an elite, not the common man. Our distant ancestors only fought if they felt that it was in their own interest to do so. 

Edmund Leighton, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Accolade_by_Edmund_Blair_Leighton_-_complete.jpg

The Systematic Emasculation of Modern Aryan Man

 I have discussed this subject before in my older blogs, especially in Aryan Myth and Metahistory. Since the deactivation of that blog five years ago, I have noticed that the pace of emasculation of man, specifically Aryan man, has greatly accelerated. The feminised man and by extension, the masculinised woman is now the standard by which the liberal and 'progressive' society of today judges the two genders (yes, there are only TWO). This was not always the case. I am half way through my seventh decade on this earth and I do not recognise anymore the society into which I was born; the lunatics are truly in charge of the asylum!

I watch a little bit of television and I pay close attention to the trends of the advertising industry. Multiracial families, bearded men kisssing and cripples engaging in very physical sports are now not just common place but the norm. What is even more insidious is the pushing of gender role reversal onto society, especially onto native European males and females. The man now occupies the place of the traditional housewife, washing the dishes, wiping the kitchen floor, vacuuming the carpet, feeding the baby and baking the cakes. While this sorry example of a man goes about his domestic chores, the woman of the house (frequently a native African) comes home from a hard day's fire-fighting to a cooked meal, lovingly prepared by her husband, who is seen wearing a flowery apron.

Television police dramas now portray the woman (often a native African) in the starring role and in a more senior position than most of her fellow officers. These female role models not only engage in traditional masculine occupations but have begun to almost physically transform into men. The former fashion model of the past is no longer a slim, attractive, feminine woman with a gentle rounded face but either a muscular woman with angular facial features or an ugly, fat-arsed heifer! Some of these so-called 'models' would be better placed in an old-fashioned freak show, featuring bearded women! Ugliness is the new aesthetic, not the Nordic beauty (male and female) of the past, exemplified in classical and neo-classical sculpture. 

In short, we are witnessing the Umwertung aller Werte (transvaluation of all values), spoken of by Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche in his Der Antichrist (The Antichrist), published in 1895 and a very controversial work for its time. The truth of the matter is, that nobody born in the last 30-40 years is old enough to know anything different, and the present generation of young people are almost beyond hope, so thorough has the 'educational' system's indoctrination by neo-Marxist teachers been.

The traditional family unit has been the greatest victim of this transvaluation with the constant drip, drip effect of traditional gender role reversal, the gradual societal acceptance of homosexual relationships, leading to 'same sex marriage', 'gender reassignment' and the invention of or recognition by the National Health Service of 21 so-called 'genders'. In more sane times, any man believing himself to be a woman, or a woman a man would have been committed by their physician to a psychiatric hospital for evaluation and treatment, spending time on a ward with lunatics in Napoleonic attire. As anyone with a modicum of understanding of mental illness knows, one should treat the patient by challenging his or her faulty view of themselves, not reinforcing it by agreeing with them! This is how we know that the lunatics, as I have said, are running the asylum!

Due to the emasculation of the man, he no longer feels confident in being master of his own hearth and has caved in to the idea that families should be organised by 'democratic' principles rather than the time-honoured tradition, an Indo-European tradition of the man being the head of the household and his decisions and person to be respected. Any reinforcement of the Aryan husband or father's traditional role is considered now to be an example of  'narcissistic' or 'toxic' (the latest pop psychology 'buzz' words) behaviour and the man branded a 'thought criminal' in need of 'treatment'. Instead, the man must learn to be 'in touch with his feelings' and to turn on the waterworks in public, to be 'emotionally available' (another ridiculous pop psychology expression). In short, he is to behave like a sissy. The mother's traditional role is to nurture and educate her offspring, the father's is to provide for and discipline his children. Any departure from these principles, which are to be found in all sentient animal species results in anarchy and the breakdown of good order in society. Paradoxically, the man of other races appears to be exempt from this emasculation process. It is only Aryan man that has to be psychologically castrated!

Only in the eastern and southern hemispheres has man maintained his traditional masculine position. Here in the so-called 'west' he is a broken caricature of his former self. No wonder then that the Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW) movement is gaining strength and adherents from the thinking elements among Aryan man. The 21st century 'western' world is not a time nor a place in which to raise mentally and psychologically healthy children. The odds of doing so are stacked against you from the beginning. Only until times change or Aryans organise themselves into their own autonomous settlements can the Aryan (in body, mind and spirit) family unit flourish.

The Mixed Celtic and Germanic Tribes of Continental Europe and the British Isles-the Belgae

 Our knowledge concerning the tribes inhabiting the British Isles, most especially the island of Great Britain itself comes primarily from the writings of Greek and Roman historians, and archaeology. Population genetics is also beginning to play a part in unfolding our knowledge of Bronze and Iron Age Britain.

A simplistic understanding of the ethnicity of the tribes present in the island at the time of the Roman Conquest in the years 43-87CE is that all of the tribes were 'Celtic'-speaking 'Britons' until the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon invasions and colonisation of present-day England in 449CE. This is not only highly simplistic but false. A mix of both Celtic and Germanic peoples was already present in these islands at the time of the Roman Conquest. Migration from continental Europe was a factor for thousands of years prior to this. Some of the tribes of the Roman province of Britannia (present-day England and Wales) were not Celtic at all but Germanic or Celto-Germanic. The better known of these were the Belgae, who migrated from Gaul during the late 2nd century or early first century BCE.

The Belgae were not a single tribe but a confederation of closely related tribes resident in northern Gaul, namely the Bellovaci, Ambiani, Atrebates and Veromandui. Ironically, modern maps showing the location of Iron Age tribes in Britain locate the Belgae to the west of the Atrebates but the latter were part of the Belgae confederation. The German or Germanic roots of the Belgae are confirmed by Caesar in Book II of his Bello Gallico:

                           'When Caesar inquired of them what states were in arms, 

                            how powerful they were and what they could do, in war,

                            he received the following information:

                            that the greater part of the Belgae, were sprung from the Germans, 

                           and that having crossed the Rhine at an early period, 

                           they had settled there, on account of the fertility of the country,

                           and had driven out the Gauls who inhabited those regions;.....'

                            (Devitte translation)

Of the Belgae who migrated to Britain, we know that the Atrebates were among them, and possibly, the Ambiani (from Numismatics, the study of their coinage). In addition to the Belgae, it is now speculated that the Iceni of East Anglia also had Germanic or Celto-Germanic origins. The Cenimagni tribe, referred to by Caesar in Book V of Bello Gallico may very well have been a misspelling of ICENI and the name is suggestive of a Germanic root. The image of what appears to be Odin on Iceni coinage adds further weight to the hypothesis of Germanic origins.

The Portable Antiquities Scheme/ The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-SA 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/license

The ancient city of Winchester in Hampshire was the administrative centre of the kingdom of Wessex (the West Saxons). The kings of Wessex eventually united the whole of England into one kingdom. The present King of the United Kingdom, Charles III is a descendant of Alfred the Great, the most notable of the kings of Wessex. However, Winchester's history can be traced much further back than the 9th century and the etymology of its name is derived from Wenta, a Celtic word with the meaning 'tribal town' or 'meeting place'. Subsequent to the Roman Conquest, Winchester became an important settlement for the Belgae, its name then being recorded as Wenta Belgarum, meaning 'Wenta of the Belgae'.  

What should be pointed out however, is that mixed tribes on the continent or in these islands may be mixed in terms of language, culture, belief or ancestry or any combination of these features. Thus, when discussing the possible Germanic ancestral antecedents of the Iceni, the Belgae or any other tribe, it must be borne in mind that there is no evidence that they were necessarily Germanic-speaking.

 Referring back to the continental home of the Belgae, Caeser referred to the German origins of these people but his precise words were: 'that the greater part of the Belgae, were sprung, from the Germans,....'    The emphasis here is 'the greater part'; he did not state that they were all sprung from the Germans and neither did he say that those who were of German ancestry were not also descended from any Celtic peoples as well. By the time that Caesar wrote about the Belgae, they had already been settled in Gaul for a sufficient time for any mixing of blood, language, culture and religion to occur. 

Tacitus, writing in his Germania, chapter two states:

                                  'for that the people who first crossed the Rhine, and expelled

                                   the Gauls, and are now called Tungri, were then named Germans;

                                   which appellation of a particular tribe, not of a whole people,

                                   gradually prevailed; so that the title of Germans, first assumed

                                   by the victors in order to excite terror, was afterwards adopted

                                   by the nation in general.'    

The Tungri, it should be pointed out, were part of the Belgae tribal confederation.

More or less within the same time period that Caesar was writing his Bello Gallico, the Belgae who were already established in southern Britain were still ruled by the same king who governed the Belgae in Gaul, Diviciacus of the Belgic Suessiones tribe. It should be noted that the etymology of Suessiones appears to be Gallic in origin, not Germanic. This Diviciacus should not be confused with the druid of the same name who belonged to the Gallic Aedui tribe.

There is also speculation by scholars that the Regni or Regnenses in southeast England were also part of the Belgae confederation or at the very least they were influenced by them and may have had a Belgic leadership stratum. Gunivortus Goos (Gardenstone), a Dutch researcher and a long time resident of Germany (whose books I recommend) suggests in his excellent new work, Britain and Boudicca (2025) that other tribes such as the Catuvellauni and the Trinovantes were or may have been of Belgic origin. Mr Goos provides a lot of interesting information on individual tribes in his aforesaid work with maps and coloured illustrations. 

It would also appear that the Belgae were not restricted to just Gaul and modern-day England but were also present in Iron Age Ireland too. According to Professor Thomas Francis O'Rahilly (1882-1953), some of the Belgae settled in south-west Ireland in the fifth century BCE, becoming the Iverni (Erainn). He also was of the opinion that the memory of the Belgic settlers was preserved in Irish mythology in the name and people of the Fir Bolg. This latter theory is no longer acceptable to 'mainstream' historians (nothing to do with Irish republicanism then?).

What we do know from this patchwork of Celtic and Celto-Germanic tribes present in Iron Age England is that the accepted paradigm of a totally 'Celtic' Britain prior to the Anglo-Saxon colonisations from 449CE onwards is now no longer tenable! 

                           

The Sigtuna Pendant

 The Sigtuna pendant, excavated in the 1960s shows artistic similarities to the Hiddensee pendant, namely: the raven motif and the detailed filigree workmanship. This has led to some suggestions that it is the work of the same craftsman. Like the Hiddensee hoard, the piece dates to the late 10th century.

Sightuna at that time was a newly founded royal and commercial centre, and an early focal point for the establishment of Christianity in mediaeval Sweden. It is speculated that the town was founded as replacement for Birka, which became abandoned in the 960s. The town was named after Fornsigtuna (modern-day Signhildsberg), an old royal estate, 2.5 miles to the west of Sigtuna. According to chapter 5 of the Ynglinga Saga, which is the initial part of Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, the euhemerised Odin 

                     'took up his residence at the Maelare lake, at the place now called Old Sigtun.

                     There he erected a large temple, where there were sacrifices according to the

                     customs of the Asaland people. He appropriated to himself  the whole of that

                     district, and called it Sigtun. To the temple priests he gave also domains. 

                     Njord dwelt in Noatun, Frey in Upsal, Heimdal in the Himinbergs, Thor

                     in Thrudvang, Balder in Breidablik; to all of them he gave good estates.'

There are various theories regarding the etymology of the name, Sigtuna. The primary ones are as follows:

a) 'place' (tun) of a 'swamp' (sig).

b) 'place' (tun) of 'victory' (sig).

It should be remembered that 'sig' forms the first element in some of the bynames of Odin:

a) Sigdir (victory bringer).

b) Sigfodr (father of victory).

c) Siggautr (victory Gautr).

d) Sigrhofundr (victory author).

e) Sigmundr (victory protection).

f) Sigrunnr (victory tree).

g) Sigtyggr (victory true).

h) Sigtyr (god of victory).

i) Sigthror (successful in victory)

While both explanations are suitable, I personally favour the latter. The Ynglinga Saga  draws a clear connection between Odin and the old settlement of Sigtuna. From the 10th century, the new Sigtuna took over the functions as well as the name from the old settlement, while the former Sigtuna became known as Old Sigtuna or Fornsigtuna. 

Returning to the symbolism of the pendant, it is clear to me that the bird head represented on the bottom of it is a raven in abstract form, a heathen symbol with close connections to the god, Odin. It is stylised to form almost a hammer shape, and for this reason many modern reproductions are referred to as the Sigtuna 'hammer'. The original pendant was crafted in gold and an image of it is shown below.

My own personal copy in stainless steel, which is difficult to come by:

                       

  

Britannia, Aryan Tutelary Goddess of the British Isles

 The following is the resposting of an old article originally published on my now defunct Celto-Germanic Culture, Myth and History blog which I have edited and tidied up. My reason for doing so lies in the recent awakening of the Germanic and Celtic peoples of the British Isles, most especially here in England where thousands of England flags now fly from lamp posts on most housing estates.

As a child, I was often fascinated by the imagery on old English coins and in particular the figure of Britannia on pennies, ha'pennies and farthings. This imagery continued with decimalisation in the early 1970s.

It is commonly believed that the concept of Britannia as a tutelary Goddess began with the Roman invasion but this is not the case. Although she is equated with the Roman Goddess Minerva, Her history and origins precede the Romans.

Professor L. Austine Waddell in his remarkable and fascinating The Phoenician Origins of Britons, Scots and Anglo-Saxons Discovered by Phoenician and Sumerian Inscriptions in Britain by Pre-Roman Briton Coins (1924) makes it very clear that She originated with the earliest Aryan invaders of the British Isles. In Professor Waddell's works he establishes that the Phoenicians, like the Sumerians, and the founders of Egyptian civilisation, were originally Aryans. They did of course rule over other peoples, namely Semites who later became associated with the term Phoenician but originally they or their leaders were Aryan.

Professor Waddell was also one of the first scholars to recognise the Hittites to be Aryan civilisation. This is today now commonly accepted but this was not the case in the 1920s. Modern science is beginning to validate this great man's theories and his books, over recent years, have reached a new generation of racially aware Indo-Europeans.

Professor Waddell identifies ancient Phoenician coins from Lycaonia in the 3rd century CE  that also bear the image of this deity, but holding a cornucopia rather than a trident. Some of the coins also feature a shield with an equilateral Sun Cross, marking Her to be a solar deity.

"These coins, with others of the same type elsewhere, are of immense historical importance for recovering the lost history of the Britons in Britain and in their earlier homeland, as they now disclose the hitherto unknown origin of the modern British marine tutelary 'Britannia', and prove her to be of Hitto-Phoenician origin."(Waddell) 

Professor Waddell draws a link between the ancient ruling Aryan clan, the Barats and the name of Britain and hence of this Goddess. Studies of Her portrait show Her to be both graceful and beautiful, a notable Aryan physical aesthetic.

"Usually the head only of this goddess is figured on Phoenician coins, and it is a fine Aryan and non-Semitic type; see for example the Phoenician `Barat` coin from Carthage, and Phoenician coins generally. In these coins of Lycaonia the general resemblance to Britannia will be noticed-Britannia hitherto being supposed to have been first invented by the early Romans in Britain in the 2nd century A.D. in practically the identical  form still surviving on our modern British penny." (Waddell)           

Britannia, or more correctly in this context, Barat is featured on the Lycaonian coins as seated on a chair of a ship amidst the waves. In some coins She holds a cornucopia and in others possibly a sceptre or a cross. In Her other hand She holds the tiller of a rudder. The shield beside Her chair features the Sun Cross, likened to a St. George Cross within a Sun Disc. On modern pre- and post-decimal coins this cross is now the eight spoked Union Flag. The eight spokes like the four are significant and relate to cardinal and ordinal directions and the wheel of the year. Some shields portray instead the rayed sun so the solar implications of Her cult are obvious.

          "Her proper name is now disclosed by the Vedic hymns of the Eastern branch of the Aryan Barats to have been Barati, meaning'                          'Belonging to the Barats.' She is also called therein 'Brihad-the Divine' (Brihad- diva)..." (Waddell)

Britannia's association with the trident draws a link with the Roman Neptune or the Greek Poseidon, who many will know was the founder and tutelary deity of Atlantis.

          "In these Vedic hymns all the attributes of Britannia are accounted for; her tutelarship of the waters and of  hips, her lighthouse on the                  sea, her Neptune trident (as well as the origin of Neptune himself and his name), her helmet and shield, her Cross on the shield as well                as the cornucopia, which she sometimes bears upon the Phoenician and Greco-Roman coins, taking the place of the corn-stalk on the                 Briton coins." (Waddell)  

Rig Veda 2.35  is devoted to the 'Son of Waters', whom the Indo-Aryans called Napat. Napat may be the origin of Neptune.

           "The Son of Waters, gathering strength in waters, shines for his worshipper to give him treasures."(Rig Veda 2.35.8)                   

Often deities who were originally female were subsequently replaced by male ones. An obvious example from Germanic mythology is the Nerthus referred to in Tacitus' Germania, worshipped by the Angles and six other tribes in northern Germania. Later Njord became prominent amongst the Scandinavian peoples and the root of Njord is to be found in Nerthus. Some speculate that they simply formed a divine pair as did their offspring Freyr and Freyja.                         

"In the Vedic hymns she is called 'The Great Mother' (Mahi) and 'Holy Lady of the Waters' and is hailed as 'First-made mother' in a hymn to her son 'Napat the son of the waters' who has a  horse (thus disclosing the remote Aryan origin of the name and personality of the old Sea-god, Neptune, and his horses, and accounting for Neptune's trident in her hands). She is a 'Fire-Priestess' and `shows the light' (thus accounting for the Lighthouse on the older British coins with Britannia). She is personified Fire and sits upon the sacred Fire (thus accounting for the St. George's Cross which, we shall find later, symbolises Fire of the Sun). She is associated with the twin horsemen of the Sun (Aswin or Dioscorides), represented on the British coins, and coins of Syracuse (an ancient Phoenician colony) etc." (Waddell)

The concept of fire on or in water reminds me of Odin's eye (the sun) being hidden in the waters of Mimir's well. Professor Waddell also finds a connection between Barati and Bairthy, the Egyptian Goddess of the Water. Their functions are identical.

                          "Thus the tutelary Bairthy of the Ancient Egyptians and Assyrio-Babylonians appears to have been designated by them as 'The                               Warrior Water-goddess of the Sailor Phoenicians of the Land  of the Fire-drill cult.'" (Waddell)

A link may also be drawn between Neptune and the Celtic sea-God Manannan mac Lir who also was associated with horses, an Aryan totemic symbol. He is the tutelary deity of the Isle of Man, whose flag consists of a three-legged triskelion, a clear solar symbol.

                           "The Poseidon of the Tuatha De Danann Pantheon was called Lir, but we hear little of him in  comparison with his famous son,                             Manannan, the greatest and most popular of his many children." (The Mythology of the British Islands, Charles Squire) 

Barati was also the tutelary Goddess of Crete, Brihad-the-Divine, the divine daughter of Phoinix, the King of Phoenicia, thus demonstrating the Aryan origin of Cretan civilisation via the Aryo-Phoenicians. There may also be an association with the Irish Goddess Brigid, the daughter of The Dagda of the Tuatha De Danann. She also was a solar deity as evidenced by the rather interesting Swastika-like Solar Cross associated with Her.